IN FO R M A TIO N TO USERS This dissertation was produced fro m a m icro film copy o f the original docum ent. W hile th e most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this docum ent have been used, the q u ality is heavily dependent upon the q u ality o f th e original submitted. The fo llo w in g explanation o f techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. T h e sign o r "ta rg e t" fo r pages apparently lacking from th e docum ent photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to ob tain the missing page(s) or section, th ey are spliced into the film along w ith adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you com plete co n tin u ity. 2. When an image on th e film mark, copy it is an is o b literated w ith a large round black indication th a t the photographer suspected th a t th e may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You w ill fin d a good image o f the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc,, was part o f the material being p h o to g ra p h e d th e photographer "sectioning" the m aterial. fo llo w ed a d efin ite m ethod in It is customary to begin photoing at the upper le ft hand corner o f a large sheet and to continue photoing fro m le ft to right in equal sections w ith sectioning is continued again - a small overlap. If necessary, beginning below the first ro w and continuing on un til com plete. 4. T h e m ajo rity o f users indicate th at the textual content is o f greatest value, however, made from dissertation. a som ewhat higher q u ality "photographs" Silver prints reproduction could be if essential to th e understanding o f the of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by w ritin g th e Order D epartm ent, giving the catalog number, title , author and specific pages you wish reproduced. University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 A Xerox Education Company R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 15-3005 .E3 1940 •AS Anderson, Amos McIntyre. The history of elementary education in the province of N ew Brunswick... Ne w York, 1940. 4p.l. ,163, d 3 = typewritten leaves, fold, map, tables,diagrs. 29cm. Thesis jPh.D.) - H ew York university, School of' e d u c ation, 1940. Bibliography' p.160-163. | j A60453 Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106 T H IS D IS S E R T A T IO N HAS B EEN M IC R O F IL M E D E X A C T L Y A S R E C E IV E D . R e p ro d u c e d w ith p erm iss io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n er. F u rth e r rep ro d u ctio n p roh ibited w ith o u t perm ission. THE HISTORY OP ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK AMOS M. ANDERSON Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the S.chool of Education of New York University 19*10 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. PLEASE NOTE: Some p ag e s may h av e in d is tin c t F ilm e d U n iv e r s ity as M ic r o film s , p r in t. re c e iv e d . A X e ro x E d u c a tio n Company R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. SliippigonI gulf of SfJAWFENCE NEW BRUNSW ICK Sca/e oFMi/es LEGEND Trunk Roads Railways Steamship Routes. ... __ ... R e p ro d u c e d w ith p erm iss io n o f th e c o p y rig h t o w n er. F u rth e r rep ro d u ctio n p roh ibited w ith o u t perm ission. PREFACE Almost all the facts and figures on which this study is "based were secured from original documents and the various year "books mentioned in the bibliography. I wish to thank all per sons who have given me assistance and expecially to express my obligation to My. P. C. Robinson, Librarian, Legislative Build ings, Fredericton, N. B.; and Miss Estelle Vaughn, Public Li brary, Saint John, N. B . , and Mrs. Brown Maxwell, Fredericton, N. 3. for assistance in finding and interpreting many of the original documents. A.M.A. A60 1 53 R e p ro d u c e d w ith p erm iss io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u rth e r rep ro d u ctio n p roh ibited w ith o u t p erm ission. SONTENTS. Chapter Page. Introduction ........................................ I Political, Social and Economic History Political History People Social Conditions Economic Conditions II Educational Efforts of Early French Early Missionaries Schools of Northern New Brunswick III 1 5 ' 12 - Early English Schools ............................... Teachers Aid from the American States Licenses for Teachers Soldiers as Teachers Fredericton Academy ........ 17 27 IV Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Early Efforts Teachers of the Society Schools Established V Indian Schools ...................................... New England Company Commissioners Schools Established Sussex Academy Present Policy 33 VI Parish Schools 1 7 3 ^ 1 ^ 2 ^ ............................ Church and School Teachers First Education Bill Act of 1S02 Act of ISO5 Act of 1S16 Act of ISIS Act of 1S23 Interest, of Officials k-2 VII Madras Schools ...................................... Madras System National Society Teaching Methods Religious Instruction Sources of Income Schools Established Remarkable Growth Causes of Growth Causes of Decline 5& R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. II Chapter Page VIII Parish Schools 1821-1371 ............................ Act of 1829 Boarding Round Act of 1837 Commission Appointed Act of 184-7 Classification of Teachers Buildings Act of 1852 First School Report Act of 1852 72 IX Private, Church and Charity Schools ................ Private Schools Schools for Adults Church Schools Wesleyan Schools Irish Schools Baptist Schools Presbyterian Schools Present Day Church Schools Charity Schools Sunday Schools 85 X Struggle for Free Schools ........................... Background of Movement Public Opinion Organized Opposition Action of Dominion Parliament Privy Council Decision Education Conditions in Gloucester Riot in Gloucester 97 XI Free School S y s t e m .................................. System Explained Roman Catholic Opposition Progress Noted Improved Attendance Bathurst School Case Colsolidated Schools 110 XII Curriculum ....................................... Objectives Practical Courses Introduced Manual Training Physical Education Elementary Agriculture Activity Program 120 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill Chapter Page XIII Licensing and Training of Teachers ............... Early Licenses Provincial Licenses Training Schools Established Period of Training University Training Schools Summer Schools Teachers » Institutes 127 XIV Inspection and Administration .................... Local Inspection Provincial Inspection Administration 139 XV Present Situation............ . Comparisons Grants Sources of School Funds Attendance Cost of Education Teachers’ Salaries Current Tendencies in Education l44 Conclusions ....................................... First Schools Objectives of Elementary Education Educators Periods of Growth General Conclusions Problems Needing Investigation 155 t R eproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. INTRODUCTION. At the present time the Province of New Brunswick is making a great effort to ’’modernize" its educational system. This new program is being welcomed by the citizens in general, but a few are opposed to any change. This desire, on the part of some per sons, to cling to the "old and tried" makes one wonder what would be the condition of education in this Province had not progressive policies been adopted and changes made from time to time. In this study I have tried to trace the various periods of educa tional growth and change and to discover and record the facts that have a significance when the establishment, evolution, and growth of education in New Brunswick are considered. An answer has been sought for the following questions: When and where were elementary schools first found in New Brunswick? What were the earliest influences on the formation of such schools? What were the immediate reasons for the establishing of these elementary schools? What educators are chiefly to be associated with the estab lishing of these elementary schools? How extensive has been the expansion of the elementary school in this area? What have been the periods of greatest growth? What influences have produced growth during these periods? R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 The study is Justified on the following grounds: (l) It should lead to a better appreciation of the difficulties faced by the early educators of the Province. (2) The present edu cational system and the proposed changes may be better under stood in the light of the past. (3) The legality and constitu tionality of certain disputed practices are proved. (*!-) While short articles have been written on the broad topic of Education in New Brunswick there is not another study devoted entirely to elementary education. (5) It may prove a source of inspiration to persons interested in education and thus lead to further in vestigation and study. (6) It establishes temporal sequence and suggests causal relationships. To understand the study one must be aware of conditions in this Province from its earliest days till the present time. Many of the early settlers in the Province came from the New England colonies when the Revolutionary War closed in 17&3* Because these persons remained loyal to Britain they were called Loyalists. Without the arrival of these persons the organization of the Province as a political unit would have been long delayed. The influence of the Loyalists upon education was felt from the beginning. The Chief Justice of New Brunswick, G-eorge Ludlow, and the first Mayor of Saint John, Gabriel Ludlow, were graduates of King's College (now Columbia). The first rector of St. Andrews, Rev. Samuel Andrews, was a graduate of Yale, Edward Winslow, President of the House of Assembly, and Ward Chipman, the first Solicitor-General, were both Harvard grad uates. All the members of the corporation of the first grammar Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. school, founded in Saint John (1302) were Loyalists and several members were graduates of American Colleges. In education, progress has been comparable with that found in other fields of human endeavor. Fine schools have been es tablished and well-trained teachers have been provided in many centers, but rural education continues to lag on the road to progress. The elementary school of New Brunswick comprises grades I-VIII, except in the eight centers where the 6-3-3 plan has been adopted, in part, in connection with vocational schools. Kinder gartens have not been established as nart of the school system. In 1932 a Commission on Education was appointed to inves tigate the educational system of the Province and particularly to consider the elementary school. This survey shows that there is great inequality in valuations caused by the more than 170 different assessment bodies. It was recommended that the county be established as a unit for taxation and administration and that the Inspector be the county superintendent. In 1937 > a survey was made of Kings County by W. A. Penderlelth of the Department of Education in British Columbia and the students of the Summer School of Education and Fine Arts. This survey showed that the county was the logical unit for taxation and administration. A similar survey was made of Carleton County by B. A. Fletcher of Dalhousie University, in 193^, and surveys of the same type were made of Charlotte and Victoria Counties by W. H. McKenzie during the summer of 1939. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. k With the information, facilities, and leadership now avail able the road to progress can be travelled at the rate of speed which the educators and the legislature may decide to be most ac ceptable. "The green light in on and we must go forward." R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I. POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC HISTORY Political History. In 153^i when Jacques Cartier first landed on the east coast, of North America, the history of that land began, but it was not until l60^ that the exlporation of New Brunswick really started witb the discovery of the Saint John River by Champlain and de Monts. During the next forty years numerous expeditions came to the area now called New Brunswick, among which were those of Sir William Alexander, Claude and Charles La Tour, d ’Aulnay de Charnlsay, Nicholas Denys, and Villebon. The first grant of land was given by James I to Sir William Alexander in 1621. Throughout the seventeenth century contests for this territory between the French and English were frequent until in 1710 the latter were victorious and three years later ob tained Acadia by the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1755 all the French were expelled from this area because they refused to take the oath of allegiance. In 175& an expedition under General Moncton cleared the Saint John River, and five years later the marshes about Sackville which had been tilled by the French, were col R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 6 onized by English settlers from Connecticut and Massachusetts. In 1762 the settlements of Maugerville, Sheffield, and Gage- town were established, nearly all the newcomers being from New England. Settlements by Scotch and English along the eastern coast were started about 176^ and in the following year the territory became the county of Sunbury in the Province of Nova Scotia and was accorded representation in the House of Assembly at Halifax. The total population of this area, which later became New Brunswick, according to the census of 1767 2 was 1,196, of whom 1^7 were French. The people of American birth, natives of New England formed at least three-quarters of the population. Shortly afterwards, the American Revolution broke out during which the settlers in this area were loyal to the Crown. The province re mained a British colony and when in each of the United States edicts of banishment and laws of confiscation were passed agalnst the Loyalists, many of these came to Canada. During the month of April 17&3 ^ about 3*000 persons sailed from New York and later settled along the Saint John River. The great majority of the persons coming at this time were former soldiers in the British Army and professional men. In the month of October 1,200 more persons arrived from the same place. The following year saw over 9 ,000 Loyalists arrive, and that portion of Nova Scotia north of the Misslquash River became a new province 1. 2. 3. Peter Fisher— First History of New Brunswick, p.2. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. 1. p.71. Fisher— Op. Clt. p.10 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 under the name of New Brunswick. Thomas Carleton. to Hannay \ The first Governor was Sir At this time the total population, according was 16,000 persons, of whom 12,000 were Loyalists and of the remaining ^-,000 inhabitants, 1,500 were of French origin. The Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 with the United States retarded progress in the Province. several disastrous fires. In 1825, there were The worst was the one on the Mira- michl, which destroyed large forest areas and caused the death of 160 persons. The progress of the Province in the next forty years, 1226-1866, was steady and permanent. The principal questions of general interest were concerning the boundary line between New Brunswick and the State of Maine, responsible government, and the reciprocity treaty with the United States. The boundary line was one of the questions not finally disposed of at the Treaties of Versailles and Ghent, and as regards New Brunswick and the State of Maine there were continuous disputes. In 1839 there was probability of war between the disputants, and mili tary preparations were made by both sides, but negotiations were renewed which resulted in the Ashburton Treaty of 18^7 and the establishment of the boundary as it is at present. New Brunswick was one of the four original Provinces to unite to form a confederation, known as the Dominion of Canada in 1267. Since that date the history of the Province has been intimately connected with that of the Dominion. 1. Hannay— Op. Clt. p. 14-3. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. People When Cartier arrived, in 153^> he found only Indians, the number of which could not be determined. The immigration of Europeans has continued through the years until now the population of New Brunswick is slightly more than 400,000 of which more than sixty per cent, live in rural areas. In the early days of the Province there were no towns or cities and the population was scattered along the rivers and the coasts. Since the influx of the Loyalists (1 J & 3 ) the British have predominated but the French, descendants of the original French colonists or Acadians, have continued to increase until today they constitute about onethird of the population. There are a few thousand Dutch, Ger man, Scandinavian, Hebrew, Indian and Negro residents but, when U.w- -i considering education, these are comparatively^important . The province does not have to contend with any problems of race assim ilation. The French are found chiefly in the Counties of Gloucester, 2 . The English- Westmorland, Kent,Restigouche, and Madawaska. speaking population is composed of settlers from the British Isles and largely of descendants of the Loyalists who came from the United States during the American Revolution. Accompanying the Loyalists were many faithful negroes slaves, whose descen dants now number 1 ,000* The Indians now total about 1,300. Over a long period of years this number has remained relatively constant. 1. 2. L. 0. Thomas— Loc. Cit. Province of New Brunswick, p.11. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Social Conditions When the first Europeans arrived In New Brunswick they settled at the mouths of the rivers and built forts to protect themselves from the attacks of the Indians. the Indians As late as 17S6 ■*" menaced the settlers and made it necessary for them to live in stockades for protection. The ill-feeling between the French and English caused by the expulsion cf the Acadians in 1755 and the constant struggle for the control of Canada retarded progress. When the Loyalists arrived the people were so poor that they had to depend on the government for their food. capaole of making a living. Few were The Loyalists had been stripped of all their property and many of their members belonged to the learned professions and others were old soldiers or tradesmen. These newcomers, unaccustomed to the rude life in the forest, had it unusally hard. The homes were crude. The school buildings were very primitive and found only in the principal settlements. Chil dren had to learn at home during the long evening hours. Their parents assisted when they could. Attendance at schools, after they were established, was often more or less haphazard because children, of necessity, were kept at home to help with the work, much of the time. All food and clothing had to be produced by the united efforts of the family, the children did what they could to assist. Fac tories were not established until late in the nineteenth cen tury. 1. Hannay— Op. Clt. p.205. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 10 Communication and transportation were nearly Impossible In summer. Roads and bridges were not to be found. In 1202, Dugald Campbell 1 who made a survey of the -principal roads of the Province, reported that ten miles of roads fit for any kind of wheel carriage were not to be found in the Province. In winter, travel was not so difficult because the rivers and swamps were frozen. on boats. In summer all travel was by the rivers The first railway, built from Saint John to Shediac, was completed in 1S60. This led to the development of the southern part of the Province. Progress has been made. Today there are about 11,000 miles of highways of which about nine hundred are hard-surfaced, thousands of bridges and ferries. the corners of the Province. Railways penetrate into all The homes of the people compare favorably with those found in other parts of Canada. Manufac turing is carried on in all the urban centers but not on the extensive scale found in Ontario and Quebec. The leadership given by a large progressive university is definitely lacking. The five small institutions, the University of New Brunswick, Mount Allison University, St. Joseph's uni versity, St. Thomas* College and the College of Sacre-Coeur are handicapped by lack of funds and the small number of professors and students. Little research is done. The problems of the people cannot be solved by such institutions. Economic Conditions. At one time the Province was entirely covered with trees, except the marsh areas near Sackville. 1. Today about two-thirds Ibid. p. 227 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 11 of the Province is wooded. Large areas in the north and central sections are capable of supporting forest growth only. In the south and east the soils, for the most part, are well suited for agriculture. The industries in order of importance are: Agriculture, manufacturing, forestry, fisheries, mining and trapping. While agriculture is the chief industry, it is surprising to find the farmers in the past were well satisfied with scrub cattle and inferior horses and other animals. "The attitude of the New Brunswick farmer of today is changing, he now fully realizes the need for eliminating his scrub cattle and taking advantage of the many govern mental policies which have been introduced for the purpose of aiding him financially and otherwise in raising the* grade of his stock." 1 According to the Dominion Bureau of Statistics ^ the cap ital wealth of New Brunswick was $730,297*000 in 1937 and the wealth per capita $1,739. six of the nine Provinces of Canada have more wealth per capita than New Brunswick. When it is remembered that the Loyalists were destitute when they arrived in New Brunswick and that many of the European Immigrants were forced to leave their native lands because of famine and poverty it becomes evident that great economic pro gress has been made. 1. 2. L. 0. Thomas— The Province of New Brunswick, Canada Year Book, 1939. p.927. p.39. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER II EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS OF THE EARLY FRENCH Early Missionaries The Province of New Brunswick has an educational history not unlike that of other political divisions of North America. At first the struggle for existence in the wilderness left the early settlers little time or opportunity to provide their chilfren with education except in those fundamentals which would fit them to overcome the difficulties of pioneer days. There is every reason to "believe that the French hoped to establish in Canada a stronghold where the Roman Catholic re ligion would be dominant. From the earliest days of French occu pation there were Roman Catholic missionaries putting forth selfdenying efforts to educate and Christianize the Micmac and Mallseet Indians and to instruct the Acadians. Early in the 17th century the Recollet Fathers established schools for the Indian children of New France. Soon came missionaries of the Protes tant faith. "Plus tard, sous le regime, vers 1760 les mlnlstres anglicans chercheront a remplacer les missionaries francais aupres des Indiens, mais d'ordinalre sans succes." 1 The French missionaries appear to have attacked their pro blem with zeal and system. Cathechlsm, grammars, and diction aries were produced by them in the various Indian dialects. The 1. Omer LeG-resley— L ’Enseignement du Francais En Acadie. p.24-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 government approved and aided the missionaries in their noble work. "Le premier pretre acadien qui travaillera parmi les siens, L'abbe Bourg (1772-1797) acquerra une connaisance parfaite de la langue Indienne. Le gouvernement du Nouveau Bruns wick' lui demandera de fonder des ecoles pour ces Indiens offrant de lui verser pour la premiere annee la somme de 590 livres sterling*. L'abbe Bourg, qui portait a ces desherites un armour special acceptera avec Joie l*offre du gouvernement." 1 There can be no doubt that the work of these missionaries on the Saint John and on the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence deserves every commendation. There were several different orders of Roman Catholic missionaries because in various writings mention has been made of the Jesuits, the Recollets and the Capucins. Very few definite records of their work can be found but it has been said of the Recollets, "These humble missionary laborers have had no historian to relate their privations and tolls. It surely was not for an earthly reward that they condemned themselves to spend their days among squalid savages in the deep recesses of the forest, exposed to all the vicissitudes of savage life, discomfort, disease, hunger, and sometimes starvation." ^ The work of the Capucins is described as follows: "De leur cote, ces hommes *aux pieds chausses de sandales* ne menagerent pas leurs peines; malgre les dlfficultes qu'ils avaient a surmonter pour^visiter les differents groupes d*Indiens, ils ne limiterent pas leur sele a la capitale de L'Acadle; leur activitie rayonna dans t-ut le pays. Ils etabllrent des stations permanentes au Pert Pentagoet (Castine. Maine) 1632-165^-; sau Fort Saint-Jean (Nouveau Brunswick; 16^5-165^5 a La Heve, 1632-1652; a Canseau et meme jusqu'au Nepisquit (Bathurst) 16^0-1655. La aussi, ils s'occupaient probalement d'education." J One is astonished to note the determination with which the early missionaries undertook the task of providing religious and 1. Omer LeGreslev— L«Enselgnement du Francais Sn Acadle. p. 29 2. James Hapnay— History of Acadia, p. 133. 3 # LeGresley— L'Enseignement du Francais En Acadie. p # 39_i^ R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. secular education for the residents of the young colony. In their difficult task the missionaries were sustained by the spiritual zeal and the financial aid of the religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. "Dans sa longue tournee pastorale de 16S6 Mgr. de SaintVallier il ne se contenta pas d ’admirer le progres de Po^rt Royal, visita d'autres missions Acadiennes, prosperes aussl, mais dont nous savons assez peu de chose; Mlramichi, Restlgouche, et Cheda'ik. II no£e avec int&ret visible tout ce qui se rapporte a l'ecole ou au couvent. D ’allleurs, il semble plus facile de remarquer pendant une courte visite dans une mission, les progres des enfants a l'ecole cpie le degre instruction que les paroissiens recoivent a l'lglise." 1 During the period of French occupation, and indeed up to the time of the Treaty of Paris in 17&3 > Acadia was so largely a battleground for England and France that the element of per manency was lacking in every undertaking. The French settlers in New Brunswick were dependent upon their priests for teaching both of a spiritual and intellectual character. all surprising that It is not at amid the clashing of swords the education of the people was somewhat neglected. Schools of Northern New Brunswick In 1755 ^ , nearly all the French settlers in southern New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were expelled by the English and their homes destroyed. Some were taken to the United States, others escaped to Quebec, but those in the north were not mo lested. "Les Acadiens du Madawaska, grace a leur eloignement des 1. 2. LeOresley— Op. Olt. p.52. Hannay— Op. Olt. Vol. 1. p.5^. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 15 centres anglais, jouirent d'une plus grande tranqullllte que les autres groupes acadiens de la province. Aussi y eut-il 'sans interruption, des pedagogues ambulantes tels que Pierre Duperre, Thomas Oostln, Antoine Joilet, qui enseignaient, a* tour de role, dans les dlverses localites et qui^recevalent la pension et le couvert avec une indemnite de trois shillings par famille pour le terme scholaire1. Au commencement du siecle dernier (1700), le gouvernement de la province accordait gratuitement a toutes les parolsses qui entretenaient ouverte une ecole pendant six mois de l'annee, un terrain de cent cinquante a deux cents acres. Sans vouloir diminuer aucunement les genereuses initiatives du gouvernement il faut avouer que quelques pieces d'argent eussent servl d'une manlere plus efficace la cause de 1 'enseignement. Il (le maglster; pouvait recommen^er indefiniment son cycle doctoral. Avec la lecture et l'ecriture, il enseignait aussi le catechisme," 1 In 1S17, L'Ahbe Andrew Lagarde, then curate at St. Basil opened a school. The residence 0? the priest was transformed in to a school and the elite of the youth gathered there. Lagarde became the teacher. Abbe In 1S25, several regular schools were found in Kadawaska County where French and a little Eng lish were taught. The parents made contributions in proportion to the number of pupils sent. There was an evening school or ganized as early as 1775 at Neguac. While the usual schools were attended by boys the education of the girls was not neglected. "C'est a Tracadie, que s'eleva le premier cjouvent de religieuses acadiennes. Nous le savons deja, cette paroisse etalt favorisee au point de vue des ecoles; des l$i7 > le curl Monceau en avait ouvert trois. Le^pere Vincent, fondateur a Tracadie du monastere des peres Trapplstes, desservalt les parolsses avoisinantes; pour 1 'aider dans son travail il fonda en 1226, un couvent de Trappistines a proximite du couvent des Trapplstes. E^les constaterent vite que le meilleur moyen de propager 1 'etude du catechisme etait d'apprendre a lire aux enfants. C'est alnsi, qu'indirectement- cette fondation rendlt de grands services a la langue francaise." 2 1. 2. Le&resley— Op. Clt. p.lOg LeGresley— Op. Cit. pp.136-137. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 16 The French schools continued to increase in number until 1871 when the Free School Act made it necessary for them to re frain from teaching the tenets of the Roman Catholic religion during school hours. This Act led to the establishing of many church schools in the Province. The efforts of the French to establish educational instit utions must not be considered unimportant. There is reason to believe that many schools were established, but definite records are lacking. Conditions were difficult and all praise is due the priests and members of the various religious orders for the success attained in establishing the first elementary schools in New Brunswick. The success of the French missionaries spurred the Protestant clergymen to exert more effort in the field of education. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III EARLY ENGLISH SCHOOLS Soon after the expulsion of the Acadians (1755) persis tent efforts were made by Governor Charles Lawrence to increase the English speaking population of Nova Scotia. The new town ships of Maugerville, Hopewell, Cumberland, and Sackville were established. The great majority of the new settlers were na tives of New England. The settlers in their negotiations with the Nova Scotia authorities as regards civil and religious government did not overlook the importance of providing an education for the rising generation. Four lots in each township were reserved for public purposes, one of which was for the maintenance of a school. 1 In 1766 the Nova Scotia legislature passed an Act 2 which imposed checks and restraints on the schoolmaster’s calling and in certain cases required examination and licenses. The schools located in that part of Nova Scotia which became the Province of New Brunswick (in 17£&) were established under this Act. The third section of the Act stated: "His Majesty has been pleased to order that 4-00 acres of land in each township shall be granted for the use of schools.n 1. 6 George III. Cap. 7. 2. Ibid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. lg This explains the early custom of setting aside certain lands in each township for the use of schools. Teachers In all the newly opened sections of the Province, schools were, at first, held in the farm houses of the settlements. U- sually the largest, most central, or most commodious building was selected for this purpose. An itinerant master, usually an old soldier with a smattering of the three R's, would keep school for a few months each year at one of these houses; or a woman of the district, better educated than her neighbors, would keep school at her own house, receiving for her labor a few pounds sterling from the parents of the children. "The teachers were chiefly of an itinerant type. Many of them discharged soldiers and not always of good moral character. The meagre pittance they received as compen sation obliged them to depend in part upon other occu pations for a living." Children were not entirely dependent upon the day school for instruction. Their parents had enjoyed fair educational advantages in their youth and were thus enabled to supplement the efforts of the schoolmaster by private instruction. In a few years, however, schoolhouses were erected In all the principal settlements. These were plain and very primitive. "The walls built of logs; the chinks well caulked with moss and plastered clay; the windows small and with ex ceedingly small panes; the roof covered with spruce bark; an Immense chimney at one end buiit of stone, not unfrequently of logs plastered on the inside with clay. Inside the building there was no attempt at the ceiling or plas- 1. G-. U. Hay— Canada and Its Provinces, p. 5^5. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 tering; the floor was rough hewn; the desks and seats of rude pattern and fashioned with no other implements than the woodman's axe, the auger and the saw. School hooks were' few and costly and were valued accordingly; covered sometimes with stout paper, oftener with canvas or cloth, and sometimes■with leather. It was not an un common thing for a Dllworth's spelling hook to pass through the hands of a v/hole family, several of the chil dren learning from its pages at the same time." 1 In winter, a man had to be employed as teacher because of the difficulty of maintaining discipline. In summer, when the larger hoys were working in the fields, a young woman might oc casionally essay the paramount task of keeping order. Man or woman, the teacher was kept alive by "boarding around" among uhe parents, and by a meagre additional emolument in cash or kind. The pupils were instructed individually, not in classes, and after four or five half-years of haphazard attendance, they graduated without danger of becoming a challenge "to their betters". <3 With the coming of the Loyalists in 17$3 "the number of English inhabitants was increased from about 1,500 to 13,000 with a more than corresponding increase of wealth and education. Among the Loyalists were men of ability and culture. Many of these had received a liberal education and saw the importance of providing schools and a college•in which their children might enjoy similar advantages. Many of those who filled leading positions in the govern ment of the country had enjoyed all the advantages of a colle giate education, and were sympathetic to matters dealing with education. 1. W.O.Raymond— N. B. Schools in Olden Times. (Dec.lS92 ) Vol.6 No.7 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 20 According to Webster a number of the Loyalists brought with them Negro slaves numbering more than four hundred. Slav ery never developed in the Province and though slaves were oc casionally bought and sold the general sentiment of the people was opposed to it. Separate schools for the Negro children be came a necessity at Fredericton and Saint John. Aid from the American States. On the Sth of March, 17^3 > & meeting was held in New York to consider the ways and means whereby the cause of religion and education might best be promoted in the new colonies about to be founded by the exiled Loyalists. Dr, Charles Inglis, afterwards first bishop of Nova Scotia, and Jonathan Odell, first Provincial Secretary of New Brunswick, were among those present. After due deliberation a plan was drawn up for providing religious and educational privileges for those emigrating from the old colonies to Nova Scotia. Among the suggestions it contained was that of setting apart lands for the use and maintenance of schools. In connection with the subject of education occurs this paragraph: "It will be highly beneficial and expedient both from the present state and the immediate prospect of extensive settlement of that province, that the youth be furnished as soon as possible with such means, necessary education and liberal instruction as may qualify them for public utility— filling the civil offices of government with credit and respectability— Inspire those principles of virtue and public spirit, that liberality of sentiment and' enlargement of mind which may attach them to the constitution happiness and interests of their country. 1. J. C. Webster— Historical Guide to New Brunswick, p.Ill R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. For this purpose a public seminary, academy or college should, without delay, begin to be instituted at the most centrical part of the province." 1 The circumstances in which the exiles found themselves made it impossible for them to send their children abroad for an education. They had sacrificed their possessions, their various positions and were now in a state of destitution. The Loyalists speedily set to work to create new homes and farms in what was then an almost unbroken wilderness. The rising generation soon felt the loss of the superior educational advantages enjoyed by their fathers and mothers. In the more thickly settled areas the means of securing the fundamentals of an education were soon available, but in the scattered areas the means of securing an education were for many years lamentably deficient. The first provision made by law for the education of youth in the newly formed Province of New Brunswick is contained In the insturctions to the first Governor, Thomas Carleton, issued at the Court of St. James, August IS, 17&4-, by bis Majesty King George III: "That a particular spot in or as near each township as possible be set apart for the building of a church and 400 acres adjacent thereto be allotted for the maintenance of a minister and 200 acres for a schoolmaster." 2 Apparently this grant of 200 acres was a personal one to encourage the settlement of a schoolmaster in each township rather than for the s\ipport of the school itself; since a later section of the instructions states 1. 1. W.O.Raymond— -Op. Clt. Vol. VI. No. S. p.1^9 Royal Instructions to Governor Carleton. Section 4-5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 22 "That a quantity of land not exceeding 500 acres be set apart for the maintenance of a schoolmaster in each township." 1 Licenses for Teachers. The very close connection which existed between church and state in the early days of this Province is illustrated by that section of the instructions to Governor Carleton,which states: "And we do further direct that no schoolmaster who shall arrive in our said province from this kingdom be hence forth permitted to keep school in that our said province without the license of the Lord Bishop of London, and that no person now there, or that shall come from other parts, shall be admitted to keep school in New Brunswick without your license first obtained." 2 The purposes of such a section were, (a) To provide for the licensing of school teachers by competent authority. only The provision for sending out schoolmasters from England at the time was that provided by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the work of which was largely under the supervision of the Bishop of London. Hence the cer tificate of that Bishop was the official guarantee of the com petency of the English schoolmaster, (b) To insure the teaching of loyalty to the crown, because in Upper Canada in many in stances teachers from the United States were employed "who introduce books from their own country, in which the history and institutions of that republic are colored in a manner dangerous to the principles formed in their pupils; and the foundation of loyalty is thus sapped in 1. 2. Royal Instructions to Governor Carleton. Ibid. Section 7 b , Section 4-9 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 23 the rising population of the country." 1 The following extract from the King's Instructions to Gover nor Carleton shows that the subject of education was expected to be among the first things to engage the attention of the House of Assembly. "It is our further will and pleasure that you will recommend to the Assembly to enter upon proper methods for the erecting and maintenance of schools in order to the training up to youth to reading and to a necessary knowledge of the principles of religion." 2 Soldiers as Teachers. The opening of this virgin land for civilization made nec essary the stationing of troops of soldiers to protect the new settlers from the attacks of the Indians. It is believed that the soldiers had among their numbers men who taught the chil dren of the immigrants. Proof of this seems to be given in the following: "There were many private schools in private homes, but the public school, as well as every New Brunswick instit ution, was founded by soldiers. The first teacher of a public school is credited to have been Bealing Stephen Williams, who came from Cornwall, England, in 1790, and who was clerk to Brigade Major of Fredericton, Harris M. Hailes. In March 1797» Mathew Brannen, Major In the militia and clerk in the office of the Provincial Sec retary opened a school with thirty white and eleven colored children. For many years schools were conducted under the direction of the British regiments stations in Fredericton." 3 Since the Loyalists were originally of English stock, their 1. W. 0. Raymond— Op. Clt. Vol. VI. No. 2. p. 150 2. Royal Instructions to (governor Carleton. Section 3. L. B. Maxwell— History of Central Mew Brunswick, 73. p.130 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 2h Ideas concerning education reflected the prevailing educational philosophy of the English people at that time. The English held the view that secondary education was more important than elementary, since it is necessary to train leaders. It may have been this idea, which caused the Legislature to consider establishing an academy or seminary before it gave attention to elementary education. Then too, a certain amount of elementary education was provided in the home, while secon dary education in this manner was Impossible. There were nearly 100 Harvard chusetts emigration alone. value of education. graduates in the Massa These men were fully aware of the In a memorial presented by Dr. Paine and his Loyalist associates to Governor Carleton their attitude was clearly portrayed. "Your memorialists, whose names are hitherto subscribed, beg leave to represent and state to your consideration the necessity and expediency of an early attention to the establishment, in this infant province, of an academy or school in the Liberal arts and sciences." 2 Fredericton Academy In the Journals of the Council for the year 17S2 are found the names of the first trustees of the academy or free school mantained and supported in the town of Fredericton for the edu cation of youth. During the session of the Council in 1792 ^ a grant of $100 was made to the Provincial seminary. This was the first grant made by the Provincial Legislature for education. l7 2. 3. Lorenzo Sabine— Loyalists of the American Revolution. J. W. Lawrence— Judges of New Brunswick, p. 265 Journal of the Council, 1792. p. 10^ R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 25 The academy was probably opened about 17S6 but no records of the teachers or the general routine of the school has been preserved. It is evident that the work at first done here was not of collegiate grade for in a letter from Governor Carleton one finds: "Under these circumstances the Trustees have hitherto con fined their exertions to a Grammar School in which they have employed such teachers only as were to be found upon the spot, but as they will now be encouraged to look up to the^Throne and hope to participate with the College of Nova Scotia in his Majesty'3 paternal regard and tbs bounty of Parliament, they will prepare without delay and with confidence of success, to enlarge their plan of Instruction and complete their foundation of a liberal and learned education." 1 In 1S00 the academy, or seminary, was incorporated as the College of New Brunswick and later became the head of the system of education for the Province. For some years after the instit ution became a recognized college there was an elementary school operated in conjunction with it. This was known as the Collegiate School 2 which later became part of the public school system of the city of Fredericton. The importance of having teachers examined and licensed must not be underestimated because the political and educational life of the young colony depended largely upon the loyalty and qualifications of the teachers. The tendency to stress the education of the leaders had an important bearing upon the progress of the Province. The Loyalists realized that if the Province was to remain English then schools must be established where the ideals common to the 1. 2. Letter from Gov. Carleton to Rt. Honorable W.W.Grenville. Dated Aug. 20th 1790. A 4-.m 403 D, Col. Cor. N.B, Vol. 2. p. 223. Minutes of the Fredericton School Board. Dec. IS, 1S71. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 26 English people of this period might be taught, therefore grants of money were generously provided. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER IV SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL Early Efforts. As early as 177^ ^ upon the recommendation of the Lieuten ant-Governor and Corresponding Committee of the Society, James Porter was appointed schoolmaster at Cumberland with the usual salary of £10. In 17S6 ^ the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts adopted a definite policy of supporting pri mary schools in New Brunswick. The society had provided many of the elementary teachers in the thirteen original colonies and at the close of the War of Independence it turned its attention towards the remaining British possessions. St. Andrews, Aug.15, 1727. "The Rev. Samuel Andrews thanks the secretary of the society for a box of books and asks that his son,may be employed by the Society as a school master." * Teachers of the Society After the Declaration of American Independence (177&), !• 2. Report of Society for Propagation of the Gospel. 177^. p. 10 G, Herbert Lee— First Fifty Years of the Church of England In New Brunswick, p. 3^ 3. Report No. 2 Calendar of Church Manuscripts, Canada Diocese of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 23 many of the missionaries of the society, with sturdy indepen dence of character and ardent feeling of loyalty to England, re fused to remain in the United States of America and came to New Brunswick. The Society refused to continue paying the salaries of those missionaries remaining in the American States hut under took to provld.e for those who had left and settled in His Ma jesty's Colonies. The schoolmasters employed by the Society received the following instructions: "That they well consider the end for which they are employed by the Society; viz. the instruction and disposing children to believe and live as Christians. They are therefore to take especial care the manners of their scholars both in schools, and out of them, warning them seriously of those vices to which children are most liable; teaching them to abhor lying and falsehood; to avoid all sorts of evil speaking; to love truth and honesty; to be modest, wellbehaved, just, affable and courteous; to teach the chil dren to read truly and distinctly, also to write a plain legible hand in order to the fitting them for useful em ployments; with as much arithmetic as shall be necessary for the same purpose." The aim of instruction was mainly religious. Although the work done by these missionaries of the Church of England was of the most rudimentary character, it was sufficient to keep alive a taste for learning among the people and to give the advantages of religious instruction to the youth in the infant colonjr. The teachers had to be members of that church and very frequently the teacher was a man in holy orders who did the work of both pastor and teacher. Naturally the religious instruction given was in accorance with the principles and practice of the Estab- 1. W. 0. Raymond. N. B. Schools of Olden Times. Educational Review February, 1293. Vol. Vi. No. 9. p. 171 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 lished Church of England. The schoolmastere were charged "That they be Industrious and give constant attendance at proper school hours and that they use all kind and gentle methods in the governing of their scholars, that they may be loved as well as feared by them; and that when correction is necesss,ry they make the children to understand that it is given them out of kindness for their good." The schoolmasters received from the Society the small annual sum of £10 sterling, which in a very few instances was increased to £15. In the case of new settlements, assistance was sometimes given the people to the extent of £10 for the erection of a school house, with an occasional donation of books. The people often made contributions of grain and wood and we find that the people in one settlement, "agreed to purchase a piece of land conveniently situated, to build thereon a large school house snd a suitable house for the master, to supply him with wood fpr firing, and to give him a bushel of corn for each family, and to provide from a hundred to a hundred and twenty pupils for in struction." ^ School teaching was not looked upon, in those days, as a vocation for which women were peculiarly adapted. was young and sparsely peopled. The country In the rural areas the exposure, in the winter season, was such that the work of school teaching was more suitable for men. Discipline was such a difficult task in those days, and such prejudices prevailed that many women re fused to teach. In the report of the Society for the year I J 96 Is found, "All the missionaries bear ample testimony to the good con- 1. 2. Loc. Pit. Raymond— Op. Clt. p.172. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 duct of the schoolma.sters in their respective districts. The Society have had thoughts of employing^women to teach the younger children of the poor, which the Bishop of Nova Scotia much approved of, but have not yet been able to find any properly qualified for the task." The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel limited its . educational efforts to elementary schools, resembling in this the schools of other religious bodies, namely the Presbyterian schools of Scotland, the schools of the Dutch Reformed Church of Holland, and the Lutheran schools of Germany and Sweden. Schools Established Previous to the year 1200 ^ schools were in operation in many of the principal centers of the Province. Location of School Date Opened Teachers. Fort Cumberland 177^ Carleton (now Saint John West) 1734- Benjamin Snow, Timothy F. Wetmore William Burton. Porter St. Andrews 1736 Samuel Berry, James Berry. Maugerville 1739 Walter Dibblee, J. Beardsley, William Simpson. Campobello 1790 James Berry. G-agetown 1790 A . Narraway, S. R. Clark, Anthony Tyrllle, Samuel Morton. 1. Loc. Clt. 2. Report of Society of Propagation of the Gospel, 1200. R eproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 31 Location of School Date Opened Teachers. Sussex Vale 1792 S. Morton, Jeremiah Regan, Westmorland 1792 John Dunn, James Watson, Theodore Valleau. Woodstock 1795 James Yorke. Norton 1795 Ozias Ansley. Kingston 1797 Jesse Hoyt, Edmund Finn, Burton 1792 Simeon Lugrin. Fredericton (African School) 1792 Matthew Brannen, Springfield 1792 William Hayes. These schools proved of great Influence In the improvement of the moral and religious character of the people. The merits of the system became generally admitted by Roman Catholics and Dissenters alike. After acquiring the method, they removed to schools set up under their own management, Carleton, St, John, June 1^, 1788. "Timothy F. Wetmore reports that two wealthy Dissenters have been the means of starting a rival school," 1 Later, in the schools of the Society, the Madras or Lan castrian system of teaching was used, i.e., the older pupils taught the younger children, what they had been taught by the 1, Report No, 17. Calendar of Church Manuscripts; Canada, Diocese of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 32 teacher. The establishment of the Madras system of schools in 1220 and its rapid development under the fostering care of LieutenantGovernors G. Stracey Smythe and Sir Howard Douglas, in a measure rendered the aid given by the Society, no longer necessary, and it was accordingly withdrawn about the year 1236. Many pages might be written about the educational efforts of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New Bruns wick. Through the years this organization has worked for the spiritual improvement of mankind in many areas. All the work in New Brunswick is tinged with the narrow religious views held by the teachers provided. The desire to make the Province a stronghold for the Established Church of England is the most noticeable characteristic. When it became evident that this church was not to enjoy special privileges the interest and financial aid gradually diminished. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V INDIAN SCHOOLS New England Company There is record that Recollet Fathers had schools for In dian children in New France as early as l6l6 hut it was in New Brunswick that the first Protestant attempt in the Maritime Provinces was made to "propagate and advance the Christian re ligion" among the Indians. In the year 16^9 an ordinance was passed by the "Long Parliament" for "the promoting and propagating of the gospel of Jesus Christ in New England by the erection of a corporation to be called the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, to receive and dispose of moneys for that purpose." ^ Later, the sphere of its operatlonsAextended and the name changed to "The Society for the Propagation of Gospel in New England and the parts adjacent in America", generally known as the New Englang Company. This Society was in no way connected with the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" to which reference has been made. 1. 2. (pp.27-30) Annual Report of Department of Indians year ended March 31* 193&. p. IS. W. 0. Raymond, N. B. Schools of Olden Times, Educational Review Vol. VI. No. 10 (March, 1393) p. 192. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 3* The annual revenue at the Society's disposal amounted to £600 sterling and this was used to hire teachers and missionaries, from twelve to sixteen in number. Yearly salaries of to £30 were from £10 paid to these English and Indian workers. "They also erected schools and supplied them with books, including many hundreds of Eliot's translation of the Bible. As a result of these and similar efforts, many of the Indian tribes of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket were Christianized." After the Revolutionary War, the New England Companytrans ferred its labors to New Brunswick, probably on the recommendation of members of the former local Board of Commissioners who had come to this Province with the Loyalists in 1783. Commissioners In June, 1786 2 , the Company appointed as its agents or commissioners in New Brunswick, His Excellency Governor Thomas Carleton; the Honorable Chief Justice George Duncan Ludlow; the Honorable Isaac Allen, Judge of the Supreme Court; Jonathan 0dell Provincial Secretary; Jonathan Bliss, Esq.; William Paine, Doctor of Physick; and John Coffin, Esq.; empowering them or any three of them to engage and pay suitable teachers. "For civilizing, teaching and instructing the heathen natives and their children, not only in the principles of the English tongue and in other Liberal Arts and Sciences, but for the educating and placing of them and their children in some trade, mystery, or lawful calling." The Commissioners were also "to treat, contract, and agree with any person or persons 1. 2. 3. Loc. Clt. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Raymond— Op. Clt. p. 192 Vol. 1. p.206 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 for cloaths, books, tools and Implements and other nec• essaryes for the civilizing, employing, educating or placing out any of the heathen natives or their children in Eng lish familyes and with and under English masters." 1 Schools Established Schools for the Indians were established at Fredericton, in 17^7 and a few years later at Sheffield, Woodstock, Miramichi, Sussex, and Westfield. The New England company seem to have made a careful se lection of the instructors for these schools. Oliver Arnold who taught at Sussex was a graduate of Yale College; Frederick Dibblee at Woodstock graduated from King’s (now Columbia) Col lege; James Fraser of Miramichi was a Presbyterian Minister and Gervas Say at Sheffield, a pre-Loyalist settler on the Saint John River, was a magistrate. Apparently there was a patriotic as well as a Christian ideal embodied in these schools for one finds "The public Academies and private schools were established in the province with a view of civilizing the Indian na tives and thereby making them useful inhabitants, as well also for keeping their own youth from going into the neighboring States of America for their educationpand im bibing the disloyal principles of that country." These Indian schools were open to the sons of the new set tlers at very reasonable rates. A rather strange course of study was followed when one considers the pupils were, for the most part, Indians. The Prospectus of the school at Sussex taught by Mr. Arnold 1. 2. Loc. Clt. W. 0. Raymond— Winslow Papers, p. 35^. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 printed in a newspaper dated March 16, 1793> states; "The accommodations will be in readiness on the first day of Kay next for the reception of young gentlemen who may be sent to the said school where he will be taught reading and writing, English Grammar, mathematics, and natural philosophy; surveying, navigation and geography; also the Latin and Greek languages. Good accommodation will be provided in decent houses and the whole expense for the English scholars, including, boarding, lodging, washing and tuition will amount only to £18 currency per annum," 1 Unfortunate it was, for the New England Company, that the Indians were much more Interested in their supplies of provisions and clothing than they were in the benefits of an education. From the report of Mr. Davis, who taught at Westfield one gathers the impression that the Indians were not eager to have an edu cation thrust upon them: "I have this day obtained the consent of an Indian family who have submitted themselves to be instructed, and pro fess great willingness to give up their children to be educated in the English manner, "The father and mother being old and by no means would part from their children, I have taken home with me to maintain. I Intended waiting upon the honourable Board myself but the situation and necessity of the Indians were such that I was obliged to get horses and slays to carry them immediately home. Their names were as follows: Joseph, Maauctlc Governor, the Father, Mary Tobec, his squa. Scholars' Names Age Fransway Sal Susan Sal (Squa) Mary Demican Mary Angelic Joseph Murray John Nicola 18 18 16 12 10 7 Remarks. With papoose, one month old. Westfield Parish, 26, January 1790^ Signed, Burrows Davis." *- 1. 2. W. 0. Raymond— Op. Cit. p.*K)3 W. 0. Raymond— New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times, Educational Review, (March, 1893) Vol. VI. No. 10. p. 19^- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 31 Mr. Davis evidently had great difficulty in organizing his school because a year had elapsed from the time of his appoint ment before he secured pupils. There is evidence to show that these Indians came from Sheffield, far up the river Saint John, and were probably influenced by Mr Say, the teacher there. school remained open for one year only. The The other Indian schools continued till the- year 179^ when the Indian Academy, having been completed, the Commissioners decided to centralize their operations and to close the schools established in other parts of the Prov- SuBsex Academy It would seem that the Indians were at this time very much discouraged and not satisfied with the treatment they had re ceived from the hands of the new settlers. The governor hoped to gain their favor by providing a school; "The erecting of a convenient building at Sussex Vale, as an academy exclusively for them, the employment of a pre ceptor to teach them the first rudiments of education and arrangements which were made for their accommodation and comfort all contributed to soothe them in their state of distress; and although the Indians did not embrace the Christian religion with that alacrity which the pious Testator might have anticipated they, nevertheless, con sidered this place as an asylum where the aged and infirm could rest from the fatigues which are incident to savage life, and where the young of both sexes were fed, cloathed, and instructed as far as they inclined to be." The Commissioners thougt better results would be achieved if all the Indians, who desired an education, were collected in one place so that they might be taught farming as well as the 1. W. 0. Raymond— Winslow Papers, pp. 5H-512. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 ordinary subjects of the elementary school. The Board of Commissioners apprenticed young Indians to the different settlers, who were to have their services as ser vants on condition that they sent them to school for instruction at certain times. "Sussex Vale, as the Indian rendezvous for starting and returning from the chase was selected as the place for the institution, the management of which, with ample funds, was entrusted to a Board chosen from the leading men of the Province. Years of effort, however, only ended in discouragement. In spite of the expenditure, the Indians returned to their migratory habits and again became subject to the influence of the Roman Catholic priests. The Society then sought to effect its purpose by apprenticing the Indian youth to farmers, who were to train them in agriculture pursuits, while their edu cation was to be attended to at the Academy. But this scheme proved equally abortive. The Indians disliked it and it proved injurious to their morals." 1 The Society requested Mr. John West, an Episcopal minister, who had been sent to Hudson Bay,to visit the Indians in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and to look into the state of affairs at Sussex Vale. Upon receipt of his report the directors re- solved to discontinue the school. The school closed in 1&33 2 and the grants to the Indians were steadily withdrawn as the Indentures attained their maturity. "The funds notA wisely spent and the Indians complained of the system because very few were able to send their children to Sussex. It ended in failure both as a means of spreading Protestantism among them and of en couraging them to take up agriculture." 3 Raymond 1. T. 2. J. J. 4. W. 4 considers that the efforts of the teachers to Watson Smith— History of the Methodist Church. Vol. II. p.?6g. Hannay— Op. Clt. p. 207. C. Webster— Historical G-ulde to New Brunswick, p. 6^. 0. Raymond— Winslow Papers. Vol. IV. p. 119. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 39 advance the moral and spiritual welfare of Indians were produc tive of good in many instances, yet the permanent results were small. The whole experiment was a costly one, since the expendi ture of the period of years amounted to #140,000 1 , of which sum more than 30 per cent, was paid to officials who had little or no direct connection with the work of instruction. The failure of the enterprise was evident, for several reasons, (a). Extravagance. In a return Issued by Mr. Dibblee, the teacher at Woodstock, "covering a period of six months the cost of the neces saries for the native Indians at the school at Woodstock is given as £106 12s. If of which sum twelve shillings were expended in .the purchase of eight spelling books at Is. 6d. each and four shillings and six pence were spent for three quires of writing paper," ^ (b). Lack of common sense. Prayer-books provided were in the Iroquois dialect, which was unintelligible to the Maliseets along the Saint John River, (c). The Indians could not be col lected from such distances into one central school, (d). The men in charge of the work, Judge Chipman, the treasurer who re ceived £50 a year, and General Coffin, the superintendent, who was paid £125 per year, were too busy with other affairs, and seldom visited the schools. Present Policy. For a number of years little attention was paid to the edu cation of the Indians, but after Confederation (12567) the Indians 1. 2. J. Hannay— Loc. Clt. W. 0. Raymondi— New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times. Educational Review (June, 1{$93) Vol. VII. No. 1. p .7 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 4o were placed under the control of the Department of Indian Af fairs and Interest was renewed. provided by that Department. Schools were huilt and teachers Since 1920 education has been com pulsory for Indians and the dominion government aids promising students to attend High Schools and Colleges. The following Indian schools ^ were in operation in 1922, with an enrollment of 26^ pupils: Big Cove, Burnt Church, Dor chester, Eelground, Eel River, Red Bank, Oromocto, St. Mary’s, Y/oodstock, Edmundston, and Tobique. These schools continue to serve our Indian population and the enrollment has increased until in 1936 2 it was 33°• In New Brunswick nearly all the Indians live on the"reservations" provided by the dominion government, therefore separate day schools have been established. "All the Indian schools are inspected frequently by Depart ment officials. In addition, public and separate school inspectors visit all classrooms, except in the provinces of New Brunswick and British Columbia, where there are special Indian School Inspectors. More thorough in spection has resulted in a higher standard of instruction. Classroom activity in Indian schools is now comparable to the work in white schools of the same localities. In dian schools follow the provincial curricula but place special emphasis on language, reading, domestic science, manual training and agriculture. In the junior grades, there is a departure from the provincial courses, which were found not altogether suitable, in either scope or content, for Indian children." New Brunswick was the testing ground upon which the New England Company experimented with the school as an instrument by means of which the Protestant religion might be promoted. 1. 2. 3. Dominion Of Canada, Sessional Papers. No. 27, 1922. Canada Year Book 1938. P. 9 ^ Annual Report of Department of Indians. Year ended March 31. 1936 p. 21. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. hi The aim of the Society was to overcome the influence of the Roman Catholic teaching of the early French schools. The agents were zealous churchmen, hut it would appear that they did not hesitate to accept money for services which they did not adequately pro vide. The quality of the teachers provided proved that the Society was sincere in its efforts and the influence of these teachers must have tended to raise the educational and spiritual level of the natives. In spite of all the early efforts of the Society for the Propogation of the Gospel, and the New England Company to make the Indians. Protestant in religion, and farmers hy trade, they continue to be Roman Catholics and wanderers of the wild or unthirfty settlers living on the "reservations" provided. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI PARISH SCHOOLS 178^1824It has already been pointed out that the first provisions made by law for the education of youth in the Province were con tained in the Royal Instructions to Governor Thomas Carleton (p.20). Even before the first meeting of the General Assembly at Saint John, Feb. 3> 1786, attention had been directed to the matter. Dr. William Paine, a Loyalist, who was a member for Charlotte County and first Clerk of the House of Assembly, and others in Dec. 1785 presented a memorial to the Governor-inCouncil. The memorial pleads: "The situation in themselves, many time of life and tention to their which the Loyalist adventurers here find of whom on removing here had sons whose former hopes., call for an immediate at education." ' Sabine 2 shows that many of the Loyalists who came to New Brunswick were graduates of American colleges. W. 0. Raymond draws attention to an article which appeared in the Atlantic Monthly in which an American writer when speaking of the effects of the Loyalist emigration upon the State of Massachusetts writes: "Among the exiles were nearly one hundred graduates of I.. 2. W. 0. Ravmond-New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times, Educational Review September, 1893. Vol. VII. No. 3. p.4-g. Lorenzo Sablne-Loyallste of the American Revolution. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. ^3 Harvard College and they must have been no small loss to the infant state. They and their sons filled for more than half a century the chief offices in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick Judiciary and they must have contributed to a degree not easily estimated to the elevation and progress of these provinces. Cambridge lost by the American Revo lution nearly all her men of mark and high standing,.ex cept those immediately connected with the college." Church and School In the early years of the Province the same intimate re lationship which exists in England between church and state pre vailed throughout the colonies of the empire. The great majority of the founders of the Province were members of the Church of England. The Executive Council and all the government offices . were filled by its adherents. The representatives of the various counties in the House of Assembly, the Judges of the Supreme Court, sheriffs, magistrates, lawyers, doctors, and schoolmasters were all, with very few exceptions, members cf the "Established Church". It therefore can be easily understood that in matters con nected with religion or education the English precedent was fol lowed. This intimate relationship of church and state is illus trated. by the following clause taken from the Royal Instructions issued to Governor Carleton: "You shall take especial care that God Almighty be devoutly and duly served throughout your government; the Book of Common Prayer, as by law established, read each Sunday and holy day, and the blessed sacrament administered ac cording to the rites of the Church of England." Immigration, chiefly from the south of Ireland, added a L„ 2. Raymond— Op. Cit. p. J+S Royal Instructions to Governor Carleton, 17*&. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Milarge Roman Catholic element to the population and the adherents of Presbyterian, Wesleyan, and Baptist denominations increased until the Church of England was no longer the church of the ma jority and the exclusive privileges granted to it as the Estab lished Church were one by one removed. The schools supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel were suitable for the Anglicans but the other re ligious groups were unwilling to send their children to such schools. Non-sectarian parish schools became a necessity. Teachers. The qualifications of the old schoolmaster, as a rule, were not of a very high order, and he was generally equal to the duty expected of him, since outside the towns little was desired by pupil or parent beyond the rudiments of education. The teacher's salary was very small, andhis position by no means a desirable one for a man of refined taste and feelings. To illustrate the point: "In the winter of 177S-9» David Burpee taught a school in that part of the township of Maugerville, now known as Sheffield. His scholars were to pay him three shillings, eleven pence half penny per month. From his accounts it appears that only seven scholars paid tuition, although it is likely a good many more attended school. The tuition was paid in a variety of produce, work, grain, leather, musquash-skins, rum, hauling hay and making shoes. He handled but ten shillings cash for his entire winter's work." 1 The manner of engaging teachers was singular and often the position was precarious. 1. The terms were called "quarters". A W. 0. Raymond— New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times. Educational Review, (January 1895). Vol. VIII. No. 2. p. 1^2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. ^5 man considering himself a pedagogue would come into a settlement and announce his intention of "keeping a school". the homes and solicited pupils. He visited Alternate Saturdays the school was closed; holidays extended from Christmas to New Years. The teacher boarded at the homes of his pupils— a week at each place. At first, efforts were made to get teachers from the British Isles, because the political views of Americans were objectionable to most of the settlers. In time it became necessary to hire teachers from the United States for the grammar schools, where at first both elementary and secondary subjects were taught. High qualifications were demanded, as may be seen from the fol lowing: Boston, 20th December lgl^. "My dear Sir: Give me leave to introduce to you Mr. John M, Wainwright, son of a respectable gentleman of this Town, highly recommended to me by the persons to whom I was to apply, and some other gentlemen of respectability, for the situation of preceptor for the grammar school at St. John, he is an Englishman by birth, educated at Harvard College, at which he is now a Procter, which situation he is willing to leave for the one offered, with its emolu ment, which I was authorized to state would be $560— ealapy and 20 scholars a.t $30 each per year— he is recommended as an excellent classical scholar as well as a mathematician— from all I can learn of him, have no doubt but that he will meet with the full approbation of the gentlemen at St.John. I am dear Sir Yours most truly Chas. Hazen." Hon 1. Judge Chipman. Original letter in New Brunswick Museum, Saint John, N. B, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 14-6 First Education Bill No legislative provision regarding elementary education was passed during the early years. An attempt was made by the House of Assembly in 1723 to include an educational item in the Appropriation Bill of that year. In the "Bill for Appropriating and Disposing of Public Monies" is found the clause: "To the Justices of the sessions in each county for the purpose of aiding and assisting the education of youth in each Parish, in the Province under the direction of the General sessions of the Peace £10 to each Parish." The Council rejected this item after several conferences giving as their reason that "appropriating money for the education of children in the different parishes of this province is a new institution and necessarily requires particular regulations." 2 No further measures in behalf of Elementary Education were attempted till the year 1202. Act of 1202. An Act for Aiding and Encouraging Parish Schools was passed March 5 th 1202 Its form v/as simple, the plan of organization crude, the aid to each parish meagre. Yet as the earliest edu cational enactment of the Province the act is worthy of consider ation. "It was the first act passed in New Brunswick for the es tablishment of common schools, and although crude and im perfect, it marked exchange in the feelings of the people towards education." - 1. 2. 3. *4. Journal of the Assembly 1793. P. 313. Journal of the Assembly 1793. P. 333. *42 George III Cap. VI. Hannay's History of New Brunswick. Vol. 1. p. 222. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. ^7 The text of the Act is here given. "An Act for Aiding and Encouraging Parish Schools." "Whereas, the education of children is of the utmost im portance to their usefulness in society; and whereas, the situation of many parents in the different Parishes of this Province renders them unable to procure for their children the benefit of insturction in reading and writing without aid of the Legislature: (I) Be it therefore enacted by the Lieutenant-C-overnor, Council and Assembly, that the sum of four hundred and twenty pounds (being ten pounds to each parish) be granted to the Justices of the General Sessions of the Peace in the different Counties of this Province, to be paid by warrant of His Excellency, the Lieutenant-Governor out of the public treasury, in trust, for the purpose of en couraging and assisting the establishment of schools in the different parishes of their respective Counties. (II) And be it further enacted, that the sum of ten pounds to each parish hereby granted in trust to the said Justices of the General Sessions of the Peace in each County, shall be by them, with discretion, apportioned and allotted to each parish in such a manner as shall best assist in main taining such schools as may be already established or shall induce the establishment of other schools where they may judge the same necessary. (III) And be it further enacted, that the said Justices shall make report to the Lieutenant-Governor, Council and Assembly at the next meeting of the General Assembly, how the monies granted have been laid out, and how far the purposes, hereby contemplated, have been used. I assent to this Bill, enacting the same, and order it to be enrolled. Signed Thomas Carleton." # The three principles of educational policy which appeared in this Act, namely (a) provincial aid to education, (b) an ap pointed board of local control, and (c) the necessity of reporting to the legislature regarding the use of school money have been continued through the years. Proof that the grants offered by the Act of 1&02 were made # The Original Act (te George III Cap. VI). thought lost was found in the Provincial Archives, Fredericton. R eproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. use of is given in the "Report of the Appropriations of Parish School Money" which shows that Kings County received during the first year the Act was in force, grants to the extent of £70. At least thirteen schools were in operation in that county during that year. The same grant (£10) was given to a parish regardless of the number of schools. This meant that the fewer the schools in a parish the larger was the grant received by each teacher. It is presumable that several other counties had a similar in terest in education and that a comparable number of schools was established within their borders. The total amount voted by the legislature was £4-20. The House of Assembly was desirous at this time to promote 2 , it was ordered common school legislation and on March 11, 1203 that Archibald McLean, member for York, and Robert Pagan, member for Charlotte, be a committee to prepare a bill for the estab lishment of common schools throughout the Province. This bill failed to pass, but from it one gathers that the Assembly real ized that the Law of 1202 was inadequate because it was super seded in 1205 by a more elaborate enactment entitled, "An Act for Encouraging and Extending Literature in this Province." 3 Act of 1205. The first eight sections of the Act were concerned with the establishment of a grammar school in the City of Saint John. 1. 2. 3. Report received March 5> IS03. Taken from an extract of minutes of the General Sessions found among the original papers of the House ofi Assembly, Fredericton, N. B.. Journal of House of Assembly, 1203. ^5 &eorge III Cap. XII. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. ^9 The remaining five sections (9-13) dealt with the establishment "in each and every county of this province of two schools, for the instructing of youth of both sexes in English language, writing and arithmetic, which schools shall be under the direction, regulation and control and manage, ment of the Justices of the Peace for the said Counties." Five duties of the Justices administering these parish schools were stipulated by this law, (a) time "To appoint the masters for the said schools frog to time and to displace them attheir pleasure" (b) "To direct and appoint the places where such schools are to be kept or holden, from time to time, so that only one of the said schools shall be kept or holden in any one parish at one and the same time for one continued year, and no longer, and then shall be removed to another parish and shall have received the benefit of having such a school before the same school shall return to the parish where it was once holden" (c) "To pay each master of such English school the sum of £25 received from the Provincial Fund of £375 laid aside for that purpose." ^ (d) "To appoint twice a year." ? a committee to visit and examine the schools (e) "To admit any number, not exceeding four, to be free scholars without charge for their tuition." ° Although the Act of 1205 reduced the appropriation to £375 it is one of the most interesting documents in our educational history. to six years but the The sections IX-XIII were limited Act was continued ^ until March 5> l£>l6, when it expired. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The 45 George III Cap. XII. Sect. 9 Ibid. Sect. 9 Ibid. Sect. 10 TbicT. Sect. 11 Ibid. Sect. 12 Ibid. Sect. 13 50 George III Cap. XXXIII. Acts of General Assembly of'His Majesty's Province of New Brunswick, 1210, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 rector or missionary of the Church of England of the parish was to he a member of the visiting and examiniing committee, who were to report to the justices regarding the conditions of the school. The central authority, the Lieutenant-Governor-ln-Council, had a check upon the schools through the Justices of the Peace. The free pupils were supported in part by the tuition fees of the other pupils. The great weaknesses of the Act were (a) the de creasing of the provincial grant and the limiting of it to two schools in each parish, and (b) the provision for a moving school, which was to pass from parish to parish. Since there were six parishes in each county at that time and two English schools were to be established in each county the Act provided for the possibility of an English school in each parish once in three years. The Act did not interfere with the schools already in existence but aimed to provide each parish with a good school some of the time. Although this moving char acteristic recalls the moving school of Massachusetts ^ which developed during the last quarter of the seventeenth century and was superseded by the district school under the law of 17&9 , still it lacked many of the evils of the latter. Its length of tenure in each parish was set by law "one continued year"; its succession was decided by an impartial board; and its teacher was assured a good salary by the government. Speaking of the Act, Hannay says, "This Act is a long step 1. Harlan Updegraff— The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 in advance of any former enactments with regard to schools in this Province and was a recognition of the fact that the youth of the counties were entitled to the benefits of education." 1 Act of lgl6 . In 1S16, "An Act to Encourage the Establishment of Schools in this Province" ^ was passed. It shows several marks of ad vancement in the educational ideals of the legislators. It pro vided for a local board of two or more trustees for each parish, . to be appointed yearly by the Justices of the Peace for the County, at the same time as the appointment of other town officers. The duties of immediate administration were, by this Act, vested in these local trustees. They were to procure a schoolhouse, hire a teacher, visit and inspect the schools 3 and make an annual report to the Justices of their respective counties. ^ The duties of the Justices were supervisory in character. They were to distribute provincial grants to each parish call an annual meeting to discuss school matters at the request of five freeholders ^ and have general supervision and control of the trustees by means of by-laws and regulations which they were empowered to draw up. 3 The trustees were also allowed by this Act to use £1 for prizes to be awarded to the pupils who quitted themselves best 1.. 2. 3. 4. 5. o* 7. Jas. Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. 1. p. pOO 56 C-eorge III Cap. XXIII Ibid. Sect. £ Ibid. Sect. 12 Ibid. Sect. 12 Ibid. Sect. K Ibid. Sect. 2 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 at the examinations for each year. These prizes were to he a- warded only to those who were able to repeat by heart "the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments".1 A change in the method of distributing grants appeared in the Act of lgl6.2 It was enacted that each parish must raise £30 f o r the use of schools before the government grant of £20 would be made available to the parishes, A parish which raised mor than £30 was entitled to a larger grant. The maximum grant to any parish was £60. In this Act one finds alternate provision for raising money for school purposes. The trustees were authorized to call a meeting of the freeholders of the district "having a yearly income in real or personal estate to the amount of forty shillings for the purpose of subscribing or voting for the raising of money by assessment,"3 If, however, the school money were raised by subscription the trustees were charged "to take care that the benefit of such schools should be confined to the, youth of such persons as contributed to their support."^ Several sections were concerned with school support by assessment. Money necessary for school purposes might be raised by assessment.^ The rate was to be levied as were the poor taxes and limited to persons living within three miles of the school house,^ Pupils were to be taught free from all expenses "other than their own books and stationery and individual 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ibid. Sect. 6 Ibid. Sect. 9 56 George III Cap. XXIII Sect. 2. Ibid. Sect. 3 Ibid. Sect. 11 Ibid. Sect. 6 Reproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 53 portion of fuel" 1 in assessment-supported schools. Trustees were also authorized to expel any pupil being of wicked and abandoned habits. Act of 1212. The Act of 1216 was to continue in force for four years, but when the legislature met in 1212, it made haste to annul that portion of the Act which authorized town or parish assessment for school purposes because "it ha.d been found by experience, to be inexpedient to allow the inhabitants of the severa.1 towns and parishes, the power of raising money by assessment for the establishment and support of schools; it is therefore now decreed by the Lieutenant-Governor, Council and Assembly tha.t the power granted the inhabitants of the several towns and parishes in the province to raise money for school purposes, in any other way than by voluntary subscription be taken away and altogether discontinued." 2 One might consider this an act of retrogression, but it was, without a doubt, in accordance with the public sentiment of the day. The principle of raising money for school purposes by a voluntary assessment of the ratepayers of any school dis trict was re-introduced some thirty-five years later, but was not generally acted upon, and more than half a century was destined to pass before the principle of free schools and com pulsory assessment of the ratepayers for school purposes be came the law of the land, and then only as the result of one of the hardest fought political battles in the history of the 1. 2. Ibid. Sect. 5 52 G-eorge III.Cap. XVI. Sect. 1 R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. province. The Act of ISIS was not entirely reprehensible since it in creased the maximum provincial grant from £60 to £100 for each parish, giving as the reason "that it has been found necessary to increase the number of schools in some of the larger towns and parishes." 1 The sum cf £20 was again made the largest grant available to any one school. These Acts did not seem to produce the desired educational results, but just how effective they were cannot be definitely stated because no report of the school attendance was made available to the legislature. However, it is felt that "education was in a very unsatisfactory condition in the Province of Netv Brunswick in the year IQlg and it con tinued in that condition for many years afterwards." 2 Act of 18S25. The Act to Encourage the Establishment of Schools remained in force until 1S23 when it was replaced by the Act entitled "An Act for the Encouragement of Parish Schools in this Province. The following is a synopsis of the several sections of the Act: Section I provides for the appointment of trustees of schools in each town or parish, but specifies the number as three Section II. Trustees may agree from time to time with proper persons, being duly licensed, as directed by His Majesties 1. 2. 3. Ibid. Sect. i & 2 Hannay— Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley. t». 19 4- George IV. Cap. XXV. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. • 55 Royal Instructions, to keep school and to fix the salary of the schoolmaster. The trustees are further required to use their best endeavors to cause the youth of their respective towns and parished regularly to attend school, and themselves to visit and inspect the school twice in each year and to enquire into the discipline and regulations thereof, and of the proficiency of the scholars. Section III. Justices of the Sessions in each county are to certify in writing to the Lieutenant-Governor the number of schoolhouses built or provided in the several parishes, the names of the masters employed to teach, and the sum of money subscribed by the people for the support of each school, upon the receipt of which certificate the sum of £20 per annum shall be sallowed each school, the money to be drawn from the provincial treasury by warrant from His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor in favor of the trustees in the several parishes. No one school is to receive more than £ 20, and that on condition that the people have raised and paid a like sum in further support of the school. No town or parish is to receive a larger sum than £100 in one year. Section IV. Trustees may retain out of the school money (local and government) a sum not exceeding twenty shillings for each scholar, to be expended in the purchase of stationery, books, and other suitable rewards to be by them distributed to scholars who shall excel in orthography, in reading, in writing, and in arithmetic at the school examinations. No reward shall R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 56 be distributed to any scholar who cannot repeat by heart "the Greed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments". Section V. The trustees annually to report to the Sessions of the Peace all moneys received and disbursed. All the school legislation of this period was experi mental, and therefore this Act was to remain in force for only four years, but was extended till it was repealed in 1833. 1 Interest of Officials. One is impressed by the interest in education shown by the leading officials in the colony. Their efforts were always ex erted to secure improved educational conditions. The passage of the Act in 1S16 was in large measure due to the influence of Major General Smythe, who at that time administered the govern ment under the title of President and Commander-In-Chief. Major C-eneral Smythe was largely responsible for ofthe Madras School System into New Brunswick. Later the introduction Rev. James Somerville, Principal of the College at Freder icton upon the death of Major General Smythe, said, "The unwearied exertions which he made for the education of the youth of the country, particularly those of the lower orders, are known throughout the whole extent of the Province. Through his means, aided by the bounty of the Legislature, it is now within the power of the poorest and meanest in the country to give their offspring a religious education." 2 Few officials did more for schools than did Ward Chipman, Solicitor-General. 1. 2. In a letter written May 15, 1223, to the 3 William IV. Cap. 31. Unpublished Manuscripts found in the Vault of the Cathedral at Fredericton. (Sermon preached by Jas, Somerville) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 57 Right Honorable Lord Bathurst, Secretary of State for the Co ilonial Department, he states: "The general mediocrity of the circumstances of the Inhabi tants of the Province has rendered it extremely inconven ient to them to send their children abroad for education, the want of which as new generations arise, will be most severely felt, unless a foundation is effectually laid, without further delay, for the enjoyment of these advan tages within the Province. The General Assembly of the Province have from time to time in aid of the efforts of the Inhabitants provided the requisite means of elemen tary insturction in the Parish Schools throughout the Province from the Public Treasury." 1 The tendency to rely upon the state schools rather than upon church schools is evident from the beginning of our exis tence as a Province. While the worship of God was stressed in the schools during early days, it was clear that after the in flux of settlers of various religious beliefs the school system had to be non-sectarian. This fact accounts for the rise of parish schools when great efforts were being made to establish church schools. The school legislation of this period was experimental or was copied to a large extent from the laws of the neighboring American states. Nearly all the legislation concerning schools was introduced for a short period of years. At times the legis lators were too visionary and introduced legislation not in keeping with public sentiment but such legislation usually re mained in force for a short time. The cost of parish schools and the dissatisfaction caused by the manner in which they were operated led to the introduction of the Madras school system. 1. Public Archives, Ottawa, Col. Cor. N. B. Vol. 27. p. 109. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VII MADRAS SCHOOLS. Madras System. In the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to trace the development of legislation as affecting educational facili ties during the first forty years of New Brunswick history. While government-aided parish schools were developed in many areas during this period the schools provided by the Society for the Propogation of the Gospel (Chapter IV) were still an important factor in the educational life of the Province. "Lieutenant-Governor Smythe, who took office at the be ginning of the War of 1212, was a strong advocate of the Madras system of education as suitable in a Province where a large proportion of the people had but little money. After the close of the war with the United States, steps were taken to introduce this system into New Bruns wick and on 23rd of August,1219, a Royal Charter was granted to the Corporation." 1 This system of education has been variously termed the Madras, the National, the Bell, or the Lancaster System. The originator of the system, however, appears to have been Dr. Andrew Bell (1753-1^32) ^ who was born in St. Andrews, Scotland. He was graduated from the famous university of his native town and afterwards spent several years in America. Later he was or dained, as a Church of England Minister, and went to India about 1. 2. R. P. Gorham— Educational Developments in Loyalist Kingston, p. E. P. Cubberley— Brief History of Education, p. 338. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 17&9 and became the minister of St. Mary's Church in the City of • Madras. He became interested in the education of the orphan chil- fren at the Military Asylum. Because of the scarcity of teachers he was obliged to introduce the system of mutual instruction among the pupils--the older pupils teaching the younger children, so that they became alternately pupils and teachers. Dr. Bell felt that this system worked so well, that it had universal applicability and in a pamphlet published in 1797 he elaborated his ideas, concerning this method of instruction. Joseph Lancaster, (177^-1^32) ", born in Southward, London, had ideas similar to those held by Bell and in 1201 he estab lished a large school in London. The school,comprising a thousand boys, was divided into small classes, each under the cars of a monitor. A group of these classes was superintended by a head monitor, and the quasi-military system of discipline caused the whole school to assume an orderly appearance. National Society. The remarkable success achieved by the schools, organized by Bell and Lancaster, led to the foundation, in the year, 1211, of what is known as the "National Society for the education of the poor in the principles of the Established Church". 2 Through the instrumentality of this Society a training school for teachers was established in London. Here masters and mistresses were trained in the theory and practice of the Madras System and were 1. 2. E. P. Cubberley— Brief History of Education, p. 339. Ontario Teachers' Manual. History of Education, p. 126. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 6o sent out to take charge of schools, when qualified. The National Society received many benefactions and legacies in addition to State Aid, and, in consequence, was enabled to contribute towards the erection of schoolhouses both in England and in the British Colonies. In conjunction with the Society for Promoting Chris tian Knowledge, ^ founded in l699> elementary school books were in many cases furnished by the National Society free of cost. "The primary step in the introduction of the Madras Sys tem in the Maritime Provinces was the sending out of a box of 500 sets of books, to Halifax in the year iSl^, for gratuitous distribution amongst the schools of Nova Scotia." 2 The first Madras schools in New Brunswick were not estab lished in the principal towns, but in the two comparatively small villages of Kouchibouguac e.nd Buctouche, in what is now Kent County. Both of these schools were opened in 1S17. ^ In 1&L£> the National, or Madras, School was established in Saint John by Mr. West, who formerly taught at Halifax. The following appeared in the "City Gazette", Aug.23, ISIS: "Cn the successful opening of the Male National School in this City, the public are congratulated on the fair pros pect now afforded, of extending the benefits of Education to all classes of the community. Perhaps in this City there never was an establishment which promised more gen eral and lasting utility. The loose manners and profane language of the boys, with whom our streets have hitherto been thronged, proceeding from a lamentable ignorance and total want of discipline, have been the theme of animad version from the pulpit, and an object too shocking to the feelings of all well disposed persons. To remove the evil we have but to remove the cause;— and lost and unhappy in deed must that Parent be who will not embrace the oppor tunity now offered under Providence, of instilling into the minds of his offspring the blessings of religion and of knowledge. The principle of teaching in the School, is in itself a novelty, in this Province, It is one of 1. 2. E. P. Cubberley— A Brief History of Education, p. 2^0. W. 0. Raymond— N.B".Schools of olden Times. Vol.‘VII. No. 12 3. Loc. Clt. (May, 139*0. p. 222. Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 61 those wonderful discoveries, which apparently accidental, had been a source of the greatest blessings to mankind. In the year I2l6, and within a very few years after its introduction into Great Britain, (whither it was brought from Madras by the Reverend Doctor Bell, the author of the discovery), in England and Wales alone, no less than one hundred thousand children were officially reported to be receiving instruction at Schools, in union with the National Society. It has already extended over the con tinent of Europe, even into Russia, where it is now es tablished; and at this day it may enumerate millions who are receiving the advantages of the System. The boys teach each other, whereby a great saving of labor and of expense is obtained. Corporeal punishments are almost un known in the School, emulation among the boys being the exciting principle. Whilst the discipline of the rod breaks down the generous spirit of youth, and by repetition loses its force, the principle of emulation is a never ceasing motive to exertion. The school is open to all sects and denominations of Christians, who are at liberty to attend their own places of worship, and pursue their own forms. With these advantages,aand in this populous City, it is not doubted but the establishment wili flourish. The beauty of the System is such that it is only to be seen to be admired. Very liberal subscriptions were granted at the commence ment of the undertaking still the funds are inadequate to carry it on with effect; and those who have not yet sub scribed are now called upon to add their names to this work of charity under the highest patronage in the Province, and protected by the Parent Society in G-reat Britain, whose liberality has already furnished them with books and sta tionery suitable to commence with, and granted a small annual stipend. With all these advantages, it is hoped that what has been so well begun, may not be impeded through want of pecuniary assistance. It is in contemplation also to open a Female National School, as soon as the funds may be sufficient;— which may be per haps of more real importance to the community at large, than that already established, inasmuch as the morals of the female sex have a greater influence on society in gen eral.11 1 The list of those.who, up to this time, had contributed funds for the schools appeared in the same issue of the City Gazette. £273 was the total sum contributed of which £50 came from the generous hand of the Lieutenant-Governor, Major General Smythe. 1. Saint John City Gazette— Aug. 2g, ISIS. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 This was a boy's school and a' school for girls was opened about a year later. By the Charter of 1219 ^ the Madras School System was established on a substantial foundation. The province gave a grant of £250 for the erection of a suitable school in Saint John and the National Society in England contributed to its support. This charter was confirmed by an Act passed in 12S20. ^ The Saint John school was regarded as the central school and the training school for teachers. It was the design of the Charter that the benefits of the system should be extended to other parts of the Province, and this was accordingly done. "The Madras schools received liberal appropriations of money and large grants of land, and they continued to exist until the introduction of the free school system." 3 In many instances the Madras system could not be carried out in its entirety, because the schoolmasters and mistresses were not themselves sufficiently trained in the system. The popular demand for the establishment of these schools came from nearly every parish,, and it was not possible for all the teachers to undergo a course of training when there was only a limited opportunity of acquiring adequate knowledge concerning the sys tem. This made it impossible to establish any uniform standard of excellence. The condition of the Madras schools located throughout the Province is described by one writer as follows; "Having personally visited the greater number of the socalled Madras schools, I am forced to the conclusion that many a.re such merely in name." 1. 2. 3. b. Statutes of New Brunswick. 17£>6-1236-Appendlx IV. 60 George III. Cap. 6. James Hannay— Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley, p. 2 b , Saint John City Gazette. Dec. J>0, 1222. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 63 Teaching Methods. The following description of the Madras System is based upon the oral report of H. H. Hagerman, Principal of the Normal School, who taught in the Madras school at Shediac in 1SS9. "At one end of the room was a platform. The desks were ar ranged around the sides of the room facing the walls, with benches of corresponding length behind them. The benches were without backs. The apparatus employed for illustrating lessons, although an improvement upon that in use in other schools, was still rather meagre. There was the sand desk at which the smaller scholars were accustomed to write, a flat ruler being used to smooth over the sand and prepare it for fresh use after the little ones had filled it with letters and figures. School books, pens etc., were provided gratuitously, and the instruction was free to all. There were generally some two hundred boys in attendance who were taught by about a dozen teachers chosen from their own ranks by the master as being the most promising and intelligent pupils. Over the teachers an usher was placed, also ap pointed by the master, whose duties were analogous to those of a sergeant-major in the army— namely, to; exercise general supervision under direction of his superior. Everything connected with the school moved like clock work and in strict accord with the rules of the Madras system. In his conduct towards his pupils he was prompt and impartial in all his decisions, giving due credit for merit, a.t the same time fairly severe in the punishment awarded for any breach of discipline. The duties of the pupils were always clearly defined. The boys themselves swept and dusted the room, be ing named for that duty in regular order by the master. The school hours were from 9 to 12 in the morning, and from 1 to } in the afternoon. Promptly at the hour for opening, the usher mounted the platform. In the absence of the more modern school bell a stamp.of his foot commanded silence and the attention of the school. A moment later his hand was raised as the signal for prayers; the boys knelt with hands folded whilst the usher repeated sentence by sentence the words of the Lord' Prayer, the boys repeating each sen tence after he had pronounced it. School having been opened, there followed next the reciting of the Church catechism. The catechising being ended the morning session proceeded with reading, spelling, and writing. The afternoon was de voted principally to arithmetic or "cyphering" as it was called then. The classes a.lways stood to recite. Chalk lines were drawn on the floor by the boys appointed to keep the school room in order and the pupils were made to R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6K "toe the mark" with all the steadiness of military disci pline. The arrangement of the class when reciting will he seen in the following plan: C a o C-Chest with teaching aids M-Medal stand. H-Head of Class. F-Foot of Claes. T-Teacher. A-Asslstant Teacher. "On the medal stand were a number of medals, some of bright tin, others painted black. If in the course of the lesson a mistake was made, the next boy in the class was called upon to make the correction, and in case of his failure to do so, the question passed down the class until the proper answer was given, the boy making it moving up above those that had failed. If the question sometimes should pass around the class, the head boy was called upon for the cor rect answer. If successful, he went to the medal stand and took therefrom a bright tin medal marked with the figure."1 ", the boys that failed received a black medal similarly marked. For every bright medal the scholar re ceived an additional mark, for every black medal he suf fered the loss of a mark. When the boys were marched to the desks to write, it was invariably done with the greatest precision. If in taking their seats every right leg along the line of boys did not go over thebench at precisely the same instant, the usher would insist upon the repetition of the movement. The boys who were good writers acted as instructors to the others, moving to and fro among them, giving directions, pointingout faults, etc. The pens used were of course quill pens. So thoroughly was the system of discipline inculcated, that it was not an uncommon thing for the master to be absent from the room for half an hour at a time on business "down town" during which time the school went on in as orderly and quiet a manner as if he were present. There was no recess during either the morning or afternoon session of the school, the drill and exercises being con sidered sufficient to relieve the monotony of study. In leaving the school room the boys were accustomed to salute the master in military fashion. Children were admitted into the school at the age of four or five years, and passed thence to the grammar school. The annual examination was quite an event and was carefully prepared for. The boys who excelled at this examination were exempt from tuition R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 fees if they attended the grammar school, and received medals and other rewards in abundance. The boys whose gen eral standing at the close of the year was highest received a handsome silver medal from the Madras board. The course of instruction pursued at the Madras school in addition to primary work, included such subjects as the history of England, Rome, and Greece, the use of the globes, and geography." 1 Religious Instruction. The Madras school in its origin, as well as in the charac ter of the religious instruction imparted, was always a distinct ly Church of England institution; but the merits of the system were so superior to the primitive methods hitherto in vogue and the education afforded so inexpensive that the natural desire was speedily manifested by the people at large to share in the benefits irrespective of religious denomination. This led to some slight modification in the rule of church attendance where by Presbyterians, Weslevans, and Baptists were allowed to attend their own place of worship. The Roman Catholics after acquiring the method, in some instances removed their children to schools set up under the control of that church. However, all these modifications and extensions did not materially affect the prin cipal object of the National System, namely, gratuitous education for the poorer classes. Proof of these statements is found in the following re ports written by Rev. Ca.non Frederick Coster. "Even Dissenters, take advantage of the cheap education, al though disliking the National system. I refused to recom mend a certain master for appointment on the ground of con- 1. H. H. Hagerman— Oral Report Concerning Madras Schools. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. tinued non-attendance at Church.". "The Master of the Blissfie^d school cannot he recommended because he is a Baptist." 2 "I hope to eliminate the Dissenting schoolmasters. There is little difficulty with the Roman Catholic!*, as the clergy are not disposed to patronize them, but the Protestants will be more difficult." 3 Sources of Income. The income of the Madras Board was derived from several sources, including appropriations from the Society for the Pro pagation of the Gospel for schoolmasters* stipends; contributions from the National Society in England; individual donations and bequests; and an annual grant from the Province. The first grant made by the Assembly was on March 11th, 1220: "The sum of £750 to' the Governor and Trustees of the Madras school toward the support of that institution throughout the province. " ^ A like sum was voted at the next session; then for a time the annual grant was £ 500, but in 1225 it was increased to £700 and continued, atthat figure for some years. Schools Sste.blished. Outside the City of Saint John the first schools receiving aid from the Madras Board were established at Fredericton, King ston, Gagetown, Sussex Yale, Norton, Sackville, and Hampton. By the close of the year 1222 the new system was extending with un 1. 2. 3. 4. Report No. ^20— Oct. 1, 1229— Calendar of Church Manuscripts. Report No. 3— April 27, 1231— Calendar of Church Manuscripts. Report No. 7— Aug. 23, 1231— Calendar of Church Manuscripts. Minutes House of Assembly 1220. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 67 exampled rapidity In all pa.rts of the country, and at the open ing of the legislature in February following, Lieutenant-Gover nor Smythe had the satisfaction of being assured by the House of Assembly that his solicitude in .extending the blessings of edu cation to all classes of the community 11demands the warmest thanks of the present and will be highly and justly appreciated by succeeding generations11. The rules and regulations adopted by the Madras Board, un der which these schools have always been conducted, provid.ed that the schools, with their local funds, should be under the immediate management of the minister and church wardens of each parish, who were required to make an annual report to the Central Board. The remarkable development of the Madras system in Mew Brunswick will be evident from the following table: THE MADRAS SCHOOL IK NSW BRUNSWICK. Place Saint John.... Carleton...... Kingston...... Springfield.... Hampton..... .. Norton......... Sussex Vale.... Petitcodiac.... Shediac....... Westcock...... Sackville..... Fort Cumberland Pointe de Bute 1. 2. Scholars Enrolled 1S20 1 Scholars Enrolled 1324- 600 1222 lH-3 113 SI 75 60 11450 53 112 4o 105 62 *5^ *20 32 63 .. . 60 2 Saint John Gazette. July 19th & 26th, 1320. IPeter Fisher— First History of New Brunswick. PP. 76-77 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. THE MADRAS SCHOOL IN NEW BRUNSWICK. Scholars Enrolled 1820 Scholars Enrolled 1824- Jolicure...... Chatham. ..... Newcastle..... North Esk..... St. George.... St. Andrews.... Grand Manan-Grand Harbour North Head Gageto vm...... Maugerville.... " Middle District Fredericton " College School Douglas....... Queensbury.... Woodstock-Lower District " Middle District 11 Upper District Northampton.... Scotch Settlement Wakefield-Lower District 11 Middle District Military Settlements-No. 1 No. 2 No. p No. 4 Total 50 51 166 66 156 89 76 117 52 39 79 4| 36 135 76 t 131 159 116 ^,736 992 Remarkable Growth An examination of these returns shows that in four years the number of pupils enrolled had increased from 992 to 4-,736. The increase certainly was a notable one. Nevertheless, the establishment of Madras schools called forth considerable op position in certain quarters on denominational graounds. Catholics, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists Roman were all Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 anxious their children should receive the benefit of secular education, but not equally desirous that they should be taught the catechism of the Established Church, or be placed under the religious instruction of the rectors of the parishes. In spite, however, of the prejudices thus created, Madras schools continued to multiply with surprising rapidity, and there can be no doubt whatever that for more than a decade the system over-shadowed all other methods of elementary education in New Brunswick, and was upon the whole, a very great boon to the people. Speaking of the state of education in the Province at this time, Peter Fisher 1 says that most of the parish schools were conducted on the Madras system. He adds: "The state of learning in this province is very flourishing compared to what it was a few years ago. When the country was first settled the opportunities of obtaining a liberal education were small and confined to a few. From this cause many persons who fill important stations in the sev eral counties are found very deficient in learning, but this, from the many provisions lately made, will cease in a few years, and men will always be found to fill all pub lic offices with learning sufficient to enable them to discharge their several duties with credit to themselves and advantage to the public." In spite of the rapid increase in Madras schools it v/as found in the year l£>2^- only about one-third of the children of school age in the Province were in attendance at school, and of these only one-third were present daily on an average. In 1S27 there were J>1 Madras schools in operation, attended by 12^6 pupils of whom ^22 were attending the school in Saint John. There waa for a number of years a school in Saint John and another in Fredericton for Negro children. 1. 2. Peter Fisher— Sketches of New Brunswick. 0 . U. Hay— Article in Canada and Its Provinces. Vol. XIV, p. h?2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 70 Most of the rural schools were finally abandoned and in 1370, the year before the Common School Act was passed, there were only eleven Madras schools in the Province, of which three were in Saint John and one in Fredericton. The enrollment for the Madras schools in these cities was 201 and 254- pupils re spectively, a total of 1,135. The total number of pupils at tending all the Madras school in the Province in 1070 was only 1,4-24-, so they had grown very little in half a century. Causes of C-rowth. The growth and development of the Madras system were due to several causes. (a) It had the distinguished patronage of the Lleutenant-C-overnor and his advisers, port of the Clergy (b) It had the sup of the Church of England, who had hitherto been the leaders in educational matters, (c) The citizens were favorably impressed by the discipline and the quasi-mili tary characteristics. (d) It filled one of the great needs of the young colony, namely, elementary education for the chil dren of all classes of the people at a small cost, (e) The Press was favorable: "The Madras system is the result of an experiment made at Madras to render easy, pleasant, expeditious and eco nomical the acquisition of the rudiments of education and to combine in harmonious union the progress and amusement of the scholar, the ease and satisfaction of the master and the interest of the parent." 1 (f) Valuable grants of land and large bequests were re ceived. Saint John Courier, Jan. 1 7 , 1010. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Causes of Decline. The decline of the Madras system may be explained by the following facts: (a) It was not applicable to rural New Bruns wick because of the scattered population, (b) The introduction of free schools (1S72) provided education at little cost, (c) The withdrawal of the provincial grants made it impossible to continue. "Still they continued to exist under the old charter, with out any responsibility to the Province by which they had been founded and endowed, until 1900 when an arrangement was made by which upwards of $10,000 of the securities held by them were transferred to the University of New Brunswick for the support of that institution, and the balance of their property handed over to the Diocesan Synod of Fredericton for the maintenance of schools to be under their control. This arrangement was ratified by legislative enactment and thus the remaining Madras schools became Church of England Schools by authority of law." I" The co-operation of the three organizations, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Society for the Promoting of Christian Knowledge, and the National Society, in the task of providing educational facilities for the Province is one of the most interesting developments in the history of New Bruns wick. It must be remembered that all three societies were closely associated with the Established Church of England and all educational efforts were dominated by religious motives. At this period many new immigrants were arriving and many of these were not members or adherents of the Established Church. The desire to stem the tide of immigrating DissenterE pro bably accounts for the closer co-operation and renewed efforts of the societies. 1. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. 1. pp.357-35S R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER VIII PARISH SCHOOLS 1325-1871 The Act of 1823 evidently produced fairly satisfactory re sults because In 1828 a committee appointed by the House of As sembly reported as follows: "The committee have had under their consideration the oper ation of the Act for the Encouragement of Parish Schools, and have much pleasure in stating that from information re ceived from every part of this province, it appears that very great and lasting benefits have been derived from operations of the said Act." 1 Parish schools were located at Sackvllle, G-agetown, Maugerville, Chatham, Kingston, St. Andrews, and Fredericton. The re port contained in the Colonial Papers 2 shows that in 1828 there were 238 male and only 11 female students in attendance at these schools. A note states: "There was also a number of other parish schools throughout the province to each of which there was a grant of £20 when the inhabitants subscribed £30 towards the support of each master. No returns were received from these schools." 3 Act of 1829. The Act of 1823 was amended by an Act passed in 1829, which empowered the trustees 1. 2. 3. Journal of House of Assembly, 1829. p. 89. Report of Colony of New Brunswick, 1828. p. $ 6 , Loc. Clt. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 73 "to admit any number of free scholars, being the children of indigent parents." 1 The Justices "are hereby authorized if they think proper, to appoint a committee of tv/o or more persons to inspect parish schools, in their respective and If necessary report the state of the same to the Lieutenant-Governor." 2 At this time difficulties arose from the fact that school houses were private property and it was now enacted "that the Justices of the Peace and the endeavor to cause the school houses to public land of any county, and that no be removed from one part of the parish without the order of the Justices." 3 trustees shall be built on the school house shall to another part In 1229, ‘the number of schools had so increased that it be came necessary to increase the maximum grant allowed to any one parish to £l4o, with the added protection "that no county in the Province shall be entitled to re ceive a larger sum from the provincial treasury in any one year than will arise from an average of £100 for each and every parish in the said' county." ” In 1233 ^ the largest possible grant to be apportioned to any one parish was increased to £160 with the average for the county set at £120. Boarding Round. Female teachers were first mentioned by the Act of 1233 ^ which provided for a difference not only in the salary received from the parish, but also in the provincial grant to male a.nd female teachers. A male teacher was to receive from the legis lature £20 for twelve months, while a female was to receive £10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 10 George IV. Cap. XXIII.Sect. 3 10 George IV. Cap. XXII. Sect. 6 . Ibid. Sect.4 Ibid. Sect. 2 3 William IV. Cap. XXI. Sect.5 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 7^ for this same period. Equal sums were to be contributed by the inhabitants of each parish for the support of the teacher. Pro vision was also made by this Act whereby the inhabitants of the parish might provide "boa.rd, washing, and lodging" in lieu of a share of the salary to be paid by the parish. This pernicious clause persisted in the legislation until free schools were provided in 1$71 It would seem that such an arrangement as "boarding round" would reduce the cost of education to the level within the reach of all, but evidently such was not the case. "Unless the means of obtaining an education can be made less expensive the youth of our Province must remain undeucated, or otherwise be sent from home, perhaps to the United States, (which is certainly objectionable) where education can be obtained at a more moderate rate." ^ The rate of remuneration to teachers was not well calculated to attract competent persons and the result was very unsatisfac tory. Yost of the teachers employed were old men who had a mere smattering of learning and who were very Incompetent Instructors. They usually boarded around among the parents of the pupils, living at each house in proportion to the number of scholars sent. "This system, which raised them but one degree above the condition of paupers, was not conducive to their comforts or self-respect. As there was no uniformity in the books prescribed and not sufficient educational texts the results of such teaching were not likely to be satisfactory. Sometimes the teacher was a woman who eked out a scanty subsistence by communicating her small learning to a few scholars whom she taught in her kitchen. Generally the school building was a log hut without any of those ap pliances now regarded as essential to the proper in struction of Youth." 2 1. 2. Saint John Courier, April 11, 18>35. James Hannay— Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley, p. 21. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 75 Act of 1837. By the Act of 1237 “ t^ie trustees were authorized to divide the parish into such school districts "as may he found convenient", hut the parish remained the unit of administration. The number of female teachers was limited to three in each parish. The most important innovation in this Act was the appointment of a Board of Education for each county by the Lieutenant-Governor~in-Counp oil. With this board was vested the duty of licensing teachers for "it is expedient that the applicants for parish school li censes shall undergo an examination as to moral character, literary attainments and loyal principles, before obtaining legal authority to.undertake the highly important and re sponsible duty of teaching." 5 In 1237 ^ the largest possible grant to any one parish was increased to £120 and the average for the county set at £l60. The largest number of free scholars allowed in any school was set at five by the Act of 1237. Educational progress was certain to be slow because New Brunswick at an early period incurred the reproach of being some what illiterate a character which applied even to the individuals holding positions in the government. In the legislature of 1237-33 ^ a heated discussion arose concerning the appropriation for grammar schools. One member, during the discussion, remarked that "the parish school grants were almost always unanimously made and those for grammar schools 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7 William IV. Cap. VIII. Ibid. Sect. 10 Ibid. Sect. 10 Ibid. Sect. 6 . Hugh Murray— History of BritishAmerica. Vcl. II. p. 255. Debates of the House of Assembly,IS37-3S. p.27. SCHOOL OF EDUCATION! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 76 were passed with much difficulty". He gave as the reason that "the former had given almost universal satisfaction and the lat ter had not". Commission Appointed. During the session of the legislature in 18^4, the matter of parish schools was discussed and a commission was appointed "consisting of James Brown, M.P., John Gregory, and S.Z. Earle, K.D., to make a careful inspection of all parish schools and other institutions receiving provincial aid for educational purposes." 1 From the report submitted to the assembly by these gen tlemen, it appears that in Ig^^l— ^4-5 2 there we re some 500 schools in the Province having an enrolled attendance of 15,924- pupils. The increase in the number of parish schools and in the enroll ment between the years 1828 (p. 72) and 1845 is remarkable and one might conclude that educationally all was well in the Prov ince if it were not for the words of L. A. Wilmot, Chairman of the Educational Committee of the House of Assembly in 1845, "The Committee hope that the Legislature will be prepared at the next session to adopt such improvements in the present system as will carry with them the approbation and support of the country, and at the same time, to en sure those educational advantages which are in great measure denied by the present defective system." 3 Act .of 1847. For some reason the legislature did not Introduce the de sired legislation until 1847 ^ when "An Act to Provide for the 1. 2. 3. 4. Journal of the House of Assembly, 1844. p. 16 Educational Circular. October 1577> No. 6. p. 51 Journal of the House of Assembly 1845. p. 342. 10 Victoria Cap. LVI. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 Support and Improvement of Parish Schools" was passed. Not only does this Act recapitulate the hest enactments of the period, hut it includes certain new measures which are a forecast of the subsequent legislation which provided for an improved system of schools throughout the Province. This Act provided that Kis Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor and the members of the Executive Council were to constitute a Board of Education having power to establish Provincial Training and Model Schools,^ to appoint two school inspectors for the Prov ince and to establish agencies in different parts of the Prov ince for the sale of school boohs. Two training schools were established, one in Fredericton, of which Marshal D'Avary was appointed master, and one in Saint John under the control of Edmund H. Duval. The Board of Education was empowered "to make, sanction, require and enforce the system of instruction" also to "select and determine the set of boohs and apparatus to be used" in the schools of the Province. The teachers were al so required to use prescribed forms for registering and re porting the general routine of their schools. The prescribed boohs and apparatus were to be provided by a large sum set a part for that purpose in the respective counties within the Province, and sold for the use of such schools at prices fixed by the Board of Education. 3 These book-sellers were required to report annually concerning the boohs received and sold by them. 1. 2. 5. 10 Victoria. Cap. 56 Sect. 111. Journal of the House of Assembly, Ig^F. P. 25 10'Victoria. Cap. 56 Sect. 16 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. The largest possible parish grant to schools was now set at £260, with a county average of £130. Hannay, speaking 0? this Act, says, "The object was to introduce a uniform system of teaching throughout the province, and to have teachers classified according to their ability. This law placed the schools on quite a new footing and although it was far from being perfect it was a great improvement on former school laws." 1 This Act was the basis of a system of education which con tinued until the Free Schools Act of 1372. Classification of Teachers. Trained teachers were classified according to their attain ments. "Teachers of the lowest class shall be qualified to teach reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic of whole num bers, including simple interest and the combination of rules called ‘Practice'. Teachers of the Second Class shall be qualified to teach spelling, writing, arith metic, reading, English Grammar, geography and book keeping; teachers of the highest class shall be quali fied to teach spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, book-keeping, natural philosophy, al gebra, geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, land survey and navigation." Male teachers of these classes were to receive provincial aid varying with their class of license, at the rate of £13 for a third class teacher for one year, £22 for a second class teacher and £30 for a first class teacher. The grant to a licensed un trained teacher was to continue to be £20 for one year. Un trained teachers were to be allowed to continue in service for a limited period only. 1. 2, In order to Induce the licensed but un James Hannav— Historv of New Brunswick. 10 Victoria Cap. 56. Sect. 11. Vol.II p. Ill R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 trained teachers of the Province to avail themselves of the ad vantages of a training school the sum of 10s. a week for a period not exceeding ten weeks was to be allowed and paid to every licensed teacher to enable him to pay the necessary expenses of board and lodging for attending the training school. This amount was to be granted by the Provincial Treasurer when the teacher "produced a satisfactory certificate of competency and the time of attendance, from the teacher of the Training School". There were many defects in this early system. A glaring defect was the method of supporting school by the ancient means of subscription and tuition. Two early defects which were later corrected were the method parish inspection and the parish li censing of teachers. The Parish School Acts of this period (122*4— 1271) v/ere experimental in character. Internal evidence of this is to be found in the time limiting clause of each act; also the evidence of gradual development shown from the earliest to the latest enactment. Buildings. The school buildings were not satisfactory, at this period, and equipment was almost entirely lacking. "Look at the miserable huts which in many parts of the coun try are made to answer the purpose of a school, many of them in such a state that every wind of Heaven has free entrance, sc small, so inconvenient that they would make indifferent pig— styes, and yet in them the unfortunate children must spend the day, in them the still more unfortunate teacher must perform his laborious and important duties, he must !. Ibid. Sect. 2. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. teach reading and spelling without boohs, geography with out maps, and oftentimes writing ana cyphering without paper or slates.” 1 The lack of equipment and comfortable buildings may account in part for the difficulty in keeping order in the school. Fenety 2 stated "Whatever now may be the mode of teachers in the infliction of corporal punishment the practice at an earlier date was often excessive, cruel and barbarous. Children were flogged for trifling faults, such as, not having their lessons per fect, slight inattention to duty, or childish pranks. The. fear of the rod used to keep the child in continual dread and interfered with its studies." The number of parish schools increased slowly. In l& k S ^ there were 5^7 such schools with an enrollment of 1 6 ,066. Act of 1552. In 1252 the legislature passed an Act ^ which provided for the appointment by the G-overnor-in-Cour.cil of a Chief Superin tendent, who should be a member of the Board of Education and its secretary; and for the appointment, by the same authority, of an inspector for each county of the Province. But one train ing and model school for the Province was to be maintained, and female teachers were to receive less provincial aid, according to the class of their license, than men. The people of a school district could assess themselves for the erection of a school house or the support of the school, and the teacher in any school supported by assessment should receive twenty-five per cent, in crease of provincial aid. 1. 2. 3. 4-. This inducement to assess for school S. W. Bailey— Our Schools. 1&4-7-1S5S. Gr. Fenety— Political Notes and Observations. Vol. I. p. 163. Report of the Colony of New Brunswick, lg46. 15 Victoria Can. 407 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 purposes utterly failed in its object. This Act authorized the Chief Superintendent, with the sanction of the Board of Education, to select the text-books for use in the schools. "The school books sanctioned by the Board were the cheap and admirable series published by the Irish Board of Com missioners of National Education, already extensively used in the Provincial Parish schools." -*■ First School Report. For the first time one is able to get a complete picture of the parish schools. Previously, complete reports were not compiled or are entirely lost, but from the First Parish School Report c comes the following valuable information: Schools to the number of 622 were operated having IS,591 pupils enrolled. The schools were supported by various methods; the teacher, public subscription, assessment, by the Madras Board. Of the 700 school houses provided, 107 were made of logs; 3^0 of these were without yard or toilet facilities of any kind; 5^0 were owned by the districts. Of the teachers, 445 were males and 237 were females; 170 were Anglicans, 1 ^ Roman Catholics, 115 Presbyterians, 30 Meth odists, 137 Baptists and 14- Congregationalists. Private schools existed to the number of 36, having an en rollment of 362. One is impressed by the large proportion of teachers holding licenses of the lowest class. 1. 2. Of the 623 teachers, 449 Report of Parish Schools for Year 1252. p . 6. Ibid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. were of the third or lowest class, ik G were of the second class and only 37 of the first class, of this last number 31 were The schools were not graded, but had pupils of all ages and all levels of attainment in the one room. Speaking of Saint John schools, Inspector Dole suggests: "Instead of dealing with the school population there on the principle of dividing it perpendicularly, (according to the expressive figure of Horace Mann) thus increasing the number of schools comprising children of all ages and at tainments; why not divide the strata horizontally and classifying the pupils and regularly grading the schools in a manner incomparably more thorough and economical than can possibly be the result of the extension of present primitive and inefficient arrangements?" JIn 1352, for the second time, a distinction was made in the grants to male and female teachers, as follows: Males First Class Second Class Third Class £30 £20 £13 Females These grants were in aid of the teacher. First Class Second Class Third Class £20 £13 £lU- The upkeep of the school and any further salary paid the teacher were met by subscription. The practice of "boarding round" seems to have prevented many capable persons from entering the teaching profession. "The system which prevails extensively, of the teacher 'boarding round1 is especially felt to be degrading, and often creates a disgust that induces young men to relin quish the work. In some districts it may yet be necessary. In many.places it has been discontinued; but it is still maintained in many districts where the people are able without any inconvenience to remunerate the teacher by making money payments. The poor fare and indifferent lodging which in many of the houses fall to their lot; the difficulty of pursuing their necessary studies while sur rounded by a family of young and probably ill-trained chil 1. Report of Parish Schools, 1352. p. 23 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 dren; the feeling of dependence created in some sensitive minds; the too great, hut unavoidable familiarity, often breeding contempt and impairing their authority in school; the difficulty of pleasing families of different religious persuasions; and the necessity of dwelling in turns with families, from whom (with, or without reason) they feel a shrinking; all conspire to create an aversion to the sys tem, and as a consequence, to the work." 1 Act of 1352. In 1S5S, through the efforts of Hon. Charles Fisher, the legislature passed an "Act Relating to Parish Schools'*. 2 By it the Province was divided into four inspectorial districts, in stead of two, as under the Act of 12^7> ?? fourteen as under the Act of 1352. A superior school for each parish was encouraged by a special grant and by a similar expedient school libraries were established. This Act also provided for the election of school trustees by each parish or town, whereas previously they had been appointed. These trustees were to divide the parish in to school districts, to give a licensed teacher authority to open a school in any district having a suitable school house. Among the duties laid upon the teacher was that of incul cating Christian principles in the minds of the pupils. The Board of Education provided, by regulation, for the reading of the Bible and specified that the Douay version might be read in Roman Catholic schools. a claim by the Roman Catholics that the Act of 1252 entitled them These provisions were the foundation of to teach their own religion in parish schools. A premium of ten per cent, additional provincial aid was offered by this Act to every district that would support its 1. Report of Parish Schools,. 135^. p. 37 2. 21 Victoria Cap. IX 3. Ibid.. Sect. 6 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 24schools by taxes assessed upon property. This Act remained on the Statue Book fourteen years, yet not a single county, munic ipality or parish had during all these years, supported its school by assessment, as permitted by the law, and only here and there a district had done so, as in some parts of York and Charlotte coun ties. The experience of these districts was sufficient to deter other districts and probably the parishes and counties from making their territory the arena of conflicts, the results of which, however fairly won, were liable to be wrested from them at any mo ment by the ceaseless machinations of the minority. The inspec tors ana Chief Superintendent reported year by year in favor of the adoption of assessment as a mode of support, but the legis lature did not seem to heed. "In 1259 the terminal school attendance was 25,758 pupils; in 1271, it had increased to only 33,981. In truth, for years, prior to 1271, It was clearly seen by intelligent men that unless New Brunswick established a system of free education, supported by direct assessment, masses of her population must grow up in ignorance, while few would're ceive that degree and quality of training necessary to place them on something like an equal footing with those reared in the sister Provinces and states, which had es tablished free systems." Here was a genuine crisis in the history of New Brunswick demanding the exercise of true statesmanship and the noblest patriotism. All honor to the statesmanship and enlightened .patriotism of George S. King, through whose efforts a law was passed, which declared education to be the birthright of all the children and decreed that the property of the country should be assessed, and all possible means used, in order that every child should receive his birthright. 1. W. -S. Carter— History of School Legislation. Saint John Globe, Dec. 13, 1911. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER IX PRIVATE, CHURCH, AND CHARITY SCHOOLS. Private Schools. From the earliest days of settlement until the present time New Brunswick has had a goodly number of private schools. Among the Loyalists were well educated parents and the efforts of the early schoolmasters were supplemented by private in struction in the home. In an old manuscripts 1 written by one of the early settlers who came to Gagetown in 17^3 is re lated the story of how the children learned to write during the long winter evenings by means of "copy slips" provided by their elders. Reference is also made to a school kept in a private house for three or four months. Apparently, the establishment of schools among the Eng lish settlers was largely a matter of private enterprise, while among the French the church and the monks took the initiative. Considering the historical background of these two nations, this attitude towards education is just what is to be expected. "Many of the first schools established were in private houses and were conducted for only a few months each year. 1. Bradley, Mary— "A Narrative of the Life and Christian Experience Of Mrs. Mary Bradley. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. The teachers were chiefly of the itinerant type, many of them discharged soldiers, and not always of good moral character. The meagre pittance they received obliged them to depend in part on other occupations for a living." # No uniform plan or method of instruction was adopted, and for a time each teacher was the law unto himself. Rivalry a- mong the teachers was keen because the success and reputation of a teacher depended upon his ability to attract a large number of pupils. After the arrival of the Loyalists (17&3), many private schools sprang up. In Saint John the following public notice appeared: "John Sinnot begs leave to inform the public that he has opened a school at Mo. 131 Charlotte Street (he having re ceived encouragement from several gentlemen for that pur pose), to teach youth reading, writing, arithmetic, book keeping, ganging, geometry, surveying, dialing, etc. at the most reasonable terms. Said Sinnot assures such per sons who may send their children, that every possible at tention will be paid them, not only with respect to their instruction in the above particulars, but in their morals and behavior. Dated at Parr#, June JO, 172#." Nor was Saint John the only place where private schools were found in early days, for we find a school organized at King ston. An entry in the diary of Israel Hoyt 3 reads: "Nov. 27, 17S7. Began to build a school." at it eleven days." Later, "Worked Reference has already been made (p. 23) to the private schools conducted in Fredericton by Sealing. Stephen Williams, and Matthew Brannen. # Now Saint John. 1. 2. 3. G. U. Hay— Canada-Its Provinces. Vol. XIV. P. 5#5. W. 0. Raymond— New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times. Vol. VIII. May, 1895. No. 12. p. 22g. R. P. Gorham— Early Educational Developments eg Loyalist Kingston, p. 5. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 Schools for Adults. The keen competition among those who sought to secure pat ronage for their schools, led to the establishment of night schools and the following advertisement refers to one of these: "Evening School— The Subscriber, ever grateful for past en couragement, proposes to commence an evening school on the evening of the 6th day of November (1797) where pupils may be taught Arithmetic, either vulgarly or decimally, Book keeping by double entry, Geography, Chronology, and the Doctrines of the Globes the elements of Geometry and Tri gonometry with their application in any of the following branches of Mathematics, viz.: Mensuration (in lineal, superficial, and solid measures), Gauging, Surveying, Navigation, Dialing, Construction of Charts, etc. Terms may be known by applying to the Public’s most obliged hum ble servant. Saint John, October 20, 1797> Signed.........William Jennison." 3 It will be noticed that the subjects mentioned in the ad vertisements are those which appeal to men and the subjects usually were those not taught in parish schools. Evidently, schools were later provided for the teaching of the fine arts, which ap pealed to ladies. At Saint John some time previous to 1S&1 there was a pri vate school for girls conducted by Mrs. Harriet Gale Hunt. Of this school we read: "In that period of the world's history there were some strange ideas respecting the education of women. Astron omy was entirely beyond the female intellect. Physiology was improper. Some other studies, that are now1 considered necessary, were tabooed for one reason or another. The gray matter, with which Providence had endowed those young ladies, was, of course quite inefficient to cope with the intricacies of mathematics. To be sufficiently clever to go as far as proportion, which w^as called the rule of three, was looked upon as a marvel. At this time most attention was paid to what was called the "Accomplishments" I.e., Music, Painting, French, Italian, Dancing and Department." 2 1. 2. Raymond— Op. Pit, p. 22S. Telegraph-Journal Oct. 1, 192S. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. gg It would seem that many of the adults could not write for we find the following advertisement: "Penmanship: Mr. Homer, teacher of practical penmanship, begs leave most respectfully to inform the Ladies and Gen tlemen of Chatham and its vieinty that he has opened a class for instruction in the above elegant and useful art, in the large room above Mr. J. Samuel's Store, where he will be happy to impart to all persons of every age and capacity, in twelve easy lessons of one hour each, a system of Pen manship, which is to Gentlemen suitable for the counting house or General Business, being bold, free and mercantile, and to Ladies delicate, graceful, fashionalbe and neat."-*Probably, one of the most unique advertisements for a school ever written is the one which the Misses Mackintosh wrote on March 11, lS4-3> f0^ the British Academy of Saint John. According to an account of the school given in a comparatively recent pa2 per, they proposed to teach English grammar, reading,ancient and modern history.composition, rhetoric, philosophy, natural and moral botany, geography, astronomy, algebra, arithmetic, bookkeeping, French, Latin, drawing (six styles), artificaj, rice, water, oil, oriental tinting, penciling (two modes) transferring, writing (round and square), music, pianoforte, guitar and accordion, needlework, plain, ornamental, colored, netting, fancy knitting, velvet and crape embroidery, point work, Italian, German, and French, fancy work, fly cages, let ter racks, match boxes, etc., water, rices and alum work, wax fruit and flowers, bead, twist and braid work, dancing, Victoria and Lowe's quadrilles, lancers, cotillions, and other fashion able dances. Due regard was paid to the religious and scien tific improvement of youth. 1. 2. Chatham Gleaner, Oct. 29, 1S39. Saint John Globe, Oct. 23, 1909. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 According to G-esner,1 among the immigrants there were per sons of rank and some degree of eminence, who considered them selves a kind of aristocracy. There was a constant struggle be tween the aristocratic principle and the spirit of freedom, char acteristic of the Americans. These aristocrats probably sent their children to the private schools after the custom of the English noblemen. Church Schools. In Chapter II It was noted that the early schools for French were founded by Roman Catholic missionaries. The various Protestant denominations made efforts to establish schools. In Chapter IV and VII attention has been paid to educational efforts of the Established Church of England, Wesleyan Schools. The Wesleyans made two attempts to establish schools. schools were located at Saint John and Sackville. These The former, generally known as the "Varley School" became part of the Pro vincial school system after the passing of the Free Schools Act 1371. The latter, known as Mount Allison Academy ^ was opened 13^2. The United Church of Canada has operated this school since 1925. "The Varley Wesleyan day school of Saint John, N. B., opened in 135^ in a large brick building designed for the purpose, funds for its establishment having been provided by a be quest of Mark Varley, an Englishman, resident for many years 1. 2. Abraham G-esner— New Brunswick v/lth Notes for Immigrants, p. 325* A. G-. Stephen— Private Schools in Canada, p. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 in Saint John, to which a grant of £100 was added by the Legislature of the Province." ^ Irish Schools. Apparently, the Irish Roman Catholic clergy of the Province early felt the urge to provide school privileges for their par ishioners. The first mention of such a school is found in the following news item: "There is a Roman Catholic school in Saint John where poor children to any number are received, free of all expenses. The grant of £50 was rejected by the Legislative Council, in aid to individual subscriptions, to support a Catholic school in Saint John, where some hundreds of poor children have no other means whatever of obtaining an education, but who for want of suitable instruction are subjected to vice and immorality of every description." 2 .With the aid of the Sessions and later a moderate grant from the provincial government schools were established by the Roman Catholic Church for the poorer children. Reverend James Dunphv was one of the energetic Roman Catholic priests, inter ested in education. A copy of a report on his work dated July, 1S4-3, tells something of the work of this school. "The committee appointed by the Sessions to examine into the state of the Roman Catholic school in this city, and to hand over to the Rev. James Dunphy the warrant for the legislative grants for £50 and £15 0 , beg leave to report: That in pursuance of the duties assigned to your committee, they have in the first place visited the female department of the school, which is under the immediate management of Mrs. Holmes and her daughter, and feel great pleasure in stating that the senior class exhibited specimens of their penmanship highly deserving of praise; their reading was correct, and their knowledge of arithmetic and grammar ex ceeded our expectations. The order, cleanliness, neatness and propriety of conduct that prevaded all the classes ex cited our admiration and evidently entitled Mrs Holmes 1. 2. T.V^atson Smith— History of Methodist Church. Saint John Courier, April 11. 1835. Vol. II. p.^90. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 91 and her daughter, to the praise and gratitude of the com munity. Your committee, therefore, have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficient manner in which Mrs. Holmes' departments have been conducted. The number of girls present was 130, but it often exceeds 200, comprising all ages from 5 t0 15 years old. Your committee next vis ited the boys' school which is at present under the super intendence of Mr. John Sullivan. In this department, too, your committee witnessed great improvement in point of sys tem and education. Some of the boys showed an aptness towards the attainment of solid instruction, their reading was pretty good, and they answered the questions proposed on several subjects as well as could be expected consid ering their ages and opportunities. When it is recollected that the school consists of the poorest members of society, who cannot be induced to give constant, and regular attenance at their studies, and that those who attend constantly fluctuate, we do not hesitate to say that their progress fully realized our anticipations. Those who attend during the summer months are chiefly under 15 years, end who, if they were not at this school, would be passing their time in idleness, and perhaps vice. The number of boys on the day of examination was 132; the average number, however, does not always come up to that in the summer months but in the winter it frequently reaches 250, many of whom are of mature age. Your committee regret that the limited size of the school rooms and the contracted dimensions of the grounds adjacent thereto, are such as to make it highly necessary for the better and more effectual improvement of the school,that increased accommodations should be afforded which your committee hope and trust some means will be de vised to carry into effect. Your committee in conclusion deem it proper to state that from the inability of the parents of the children tc contribute towards the expense of sup porting the school, its maintenance has been a continued annual expense to the Rev. Mr. Dunphy. His Reverence having advanced since the last annual report the amount of £37 be-~ yond the grants made by the Legislature for its support. Your committee have handed to the Rev. Mr. Dunphy, the warrants of the Treasury above alluded to. Respectfully submitted, Saint John, July, 134-3• James T. Hanford, James C-allagher, Committee." 1 Early schools were established and operated by the Roman p Catholic order of the Christian Brothers.w 1. 2. One of their schools Saint John Globe, Jan. 1 5 , 1910. John A. Bowes— frew Brunswick Magazine, Karch 1905, Vol. V. No. 2. p. 123. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. once occupied the site of the present St. Joseph's School in ^aint John. In I86l ^ there were at least four Roman Catholic Schools receiving grants from the Provincial Legislature. Baptist Schools In New Brunswide, the Baptists were not slow to realize the importance of establishing a school to teach the tenets of that denomination. "On account of the Collegiate school in Fredericton being essentially Church of England, another school was needed and was proposed by the Rev. Frederick Miles. The Bap tist Seminary was opened in 1835 under the Rev. Frederick Miles with eighty male students while Mrs. Miles took charge of the forty female students and the boarding of the students. The building, a large wooden structure, was in use until free schools were adopted in 1372." ^ This seminary was the cause of many debates in the Legis lature, and in d'ue time all provincial aid was refused. For five successive years the House of Assembly voted a grant of four or five hundred pounds in aid of the seminary, but their purpose was as often defeated by the Legislative Council on the ground that it was recognized principle that public money should not be given in aid of religious or literary institutions for the dissemination of the peculiar tenets of the denomination by which they are established: "This pretext must have been deemed most flimsy by men who were aware that the sum of £ 2,200 was being bestowed an nually upon King's College, where the theological chair and all religious teachings were Episcopalian in charac ter, and that a further sum of £Loo per year was being 1. 2. K. H. Brownell— The English in America, p. ^78 L. B. Maxwell— History of Central New~Brunswick, p. 158 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 93 given to the Madras Schools, in v/hich the regular teaching of the 'Church1 catechism formed an important branch." ^ The Baptist Seminary was located in Saint John City but later it was moved to St. Martin's where it remained until it was finally closed because sufficient funds were not available. Presbyterian Schools. The Presbyterian church was responsible for the opening of an Academy at Chatham in 1861, but it was not successful. "A Presbyterian Academy is to open in Chatham. The Masters William Crocket and George McNeil. English Reading $1.00 ' per term'; Ditto with writing and arithmetic $1.50; Ditto with English Grammar, Composition, Geography, use of Globes, History $2.00; Ditto with Mechanical Drawing, Mathematics, Mechanics and Physical Science $2.50; Ditto^wlth Latin, Greek, and French ^-e year will consist of four terms." 2 In 1865 this institution was closed and no further edu cational efforts were made by the Presbyterians in this Province. Present Day Church Schools. Today the following church schools are doing elementary school work: School Academy Assumption Congrgation de Notre Dame Convent of Jesus Mary St. Mary's Academy 1. 2. Campbellton Caraquet. Lameque Newcastle T. Watson Smith— History of Methodist Church. Chatham Gleaner— Nov. 16, lS6l. Vol. II. p. 33$. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 91!- School Location. Netherwood Rothesay Collegiate Mount Allison Academy Hotel Dieu of St. Joseph Mount Carmel Academy Convent of our Lady of the Sacred Heart Home of the Good Shepherd St. Patrick's Industrial Holy Family Academy St. Gertrude's Rothesay Rothesay Sackvilie St. Basil Saint John Saint Joseph Saint John Silver Falls Tracadie Woodstock 1 Of these schools, Netherwood and Rothesay Collegiate are controlled by the Church of England, having received part of the Madras school fund; Mount Allison Academy by the United Church of Canada and all the others by the Roman Catholic Church. The larger number of Schools controlled by the Roman Catholics is explained by the attitude of their clergy towards non-sec tarian schools. Charity Schools. Charity Schools were found in several of the larger centres. Probably the best known was the "Ragged School" located in Saint John. The following account of this school gives a picture of the work done there. "RAC-GED SCHOOL. SAINT JOHN. The Institution originated and so far has been almost wholly sustained by the exertions of a few charitable la dies, who, finding in their visits among the poor, that many children were kept at home by their parents because they had not clothes to put them on an equality with others of their schoolmates, procured a room in the early 1. Annual Report, Department of Education, 1929. p. 209 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 95 part of the summer and got together a few poor children for the purpose of instruction. The School was soon well filled and the ladies gave it every attention, each taking day about in teaching the children, until at last a lady volunteered to take charge of it altogether. The actual number of names on the school books is j 6 . The society of ladies, immediatel3r interested, have a President, Secretary and Treasurer, and an account is kept of every thing received and expended. The society meets once a week to make up clothes for the children, the ma terials having been furnished in some degree by a few of the Dry Goods Stores. As the Ragged School is conducted upon a broad Christian principle free from any sectarian bias, it warmly recommends itself to the charity of all classes, and donations either in clothes or money will be thankfully received by the Teacher at the School Room. 11 ^ This school continued for some years and in 1S66 c there were 136 children, of both sexes, enrolled with an average daily attendance of about 100. Two teachers were employed. The Charity Schools were supported by public subscriptions, fees or fines collected by a C-rand or Special Jury, concerts, and bazaars, and the allowance from the governement for a free school. Sunday Schools. The establishment of the first Sunday School, so far as can be ascertained, in this Province is referred to in the fol lowing advertisement: "As the profanation of the Sabbath has of late years be come truly alarming, so as to threaten the utter sub version of religion and subordination: in order, if possible, to stop so growing an evil, Sunday Schools have been established in many places, particularly in England, the happy effects of 'which have exceeded the utmost ex pectations. A similar institution is now begun in this 1. 2. The Morning News. Jan. 6 , i860. The Evening Globe. Feb. 1, 1866. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 city, "but as a considerable expense in boobs, fuel, etc., will be necessary to support it (though the teachers gra tuitously attend them), the well-known liberality of the public is therefore thus appealed to, and subscriptions will be received by John Garrison, Esq., and Mr. John Ferguson. Dated Saint John, 23rd October, 1309.” 1 The establishment of Free Schools in 18>72 not force the private and church schools to close their doors, but it did make charity schools unnecessary. Private and church schools supplied the educational needs of a select group but were not found in sufficient numbers to provide educational facilities for the increasing population. Public-minded citizens began to make an effort to secure schools financed by taxation and that would be available to the children of all citizens regardless of the financial standing of their parents. 1. Saint John Times, Oct. 23rd, IgOQ. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER X. STRUGGLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS. Background of Movement. The religious idea was obviously in the mind of Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of Canada, when he planted a cross at G-aspe, upon his arrival in 153^« Besides the glory of holding vast dominions, the great incentive that caused the French crown to maintain a hold upon these provinces was the supposed field for the propagation of the Roman Catholic faith. Canada was pre-eminently a Roman Catholic province, not only under the French regime, but after its conquest by the British in 1760. By the Treaty of Paris (1763) the French in Canada were left to the fullest freedom of worship in the Roman Catholic religion as well as the use of their own language in all public proceedings. These privileges were reaffirmed by the British North America Act of 1267. 1 The idea of free schools was considered in Quebec as early as 1737 when a committee of council proposed schools supported by local taxes, but it was invariably opposed by religious and racial groups. 1. In New Brunswick, an optional law permitting British North America Act. Art. 133 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 local taxation was in force "between I3l6 ana 1313, "but violent resentment secured its withdrawal. Generally, opposition to free schools came from propertied men, who considered it unfair that they should be taxed to support other men's children. Religious and private interests feared a loss of privilege, but the indifference of the masses was no less an obstacle to the educational reformer. At first legis lation was usually permissive, allowing the localities to tax themselves, or to continue the rate bills, or fix a rate or the parents of children in attendance. In Ontario, after a law pro viding for free schools was passed in 1350, the benefits of lo cal taxation were so apparent that in 1371 an obligatory tax and Free School Law affected only a few districts. In New Bruns wick, however, with similar legislation at an earlier date (p. 3*1-), a mere handful of districts made the voluntary change. In Nova Scotia, the government that established free schools in 136*1suffered annihilation at the next election. In Prince Edward Island, local opposition was avoided by the government assuming a large proportion of the cost of education (1352). The question of free schools for New Brunswick was forcibly drawn to the attention of the public in 1352 by L. A. Wilmot, later Lieutenant-Governor, who said: "It is unpardonable that any child should grow up in our country without the benefit of at least a common school education. It is the right of the child. It Is the duty not only of the parent but of the people. The property of the country should educate the country. Though God has given me no child of my own to educate, I feel concerned for the education of the children of those who do possess them. I want to have the tax collector for schools calling R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. at my door. I want the children of the poor in the re mote settlements to receive the advantages now almost confined to their more fortunate brethren and sisters of the towns." 1 When the provinces entered a scheme of confederation which was approved by the "British North America Act" passed by the Im perial Parliament in 1367, certain specified powers were entrusted to the "Federal" and the "Provincial" legislatures. To the lat ter bodies was especially reserved the exclusive right to make lav/s relating to education, with a. general reservation 2 that nothing in such laws should prejudicially affect the right that any class of persons might have by law in'the provinces at the time of Confederation with respect to denominational schools. The New Brunswick legislature had always given much atten tion to the subject of education, and had liberally provided means to promote it, but with only partially good results. In conjunction with legislative aid, direct taxation'on the pro perty of the country had long been advocated as the efficient motive power that would infuse life and vigor into the common school system. Before 1367 "the other British provinces had a- dopted the principle of direct taxation for education. The following extract gives a clear picture of the state of education previous to the Free Schools Act. "The school system of the Province at this time, although it cost a great deal of money, was very unsatisfactory. Under its operation not more than one-half as many schools were kept open as were necessary for the proper education of the youth of the country, and the attendance was ir regular. The teachers depended very largely for their 1. 2. G. U. Hay— Canada and Its Provinces. British North America A ct . Art. 93* Vol. XIV. p. 4-19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 100 incomes on their government allowance. The Provincial ex penditure for the year 1870, the last year under the old school system was upwards of $83,000, while the local con tributions for sa.laries were estimated at about $115,000 a considerable part of which was paid, not in money,but in beard. The system of boarding around the teacher, still existed in many rural districts. The number of trained teachers in the Province,at this time, was about 100, while some 225 untrained teachers were employed. In some of the counties the schools were extremely deficient, and all over the Province not more than two-thirds of the children,who should have been attending school, were re ceiving an education.11 ^ Public O p i n i o n . Attorney-General King was the champion under whose leader ship the struggle for free schools was conducted. In view of the fact that up to this time public opinion in New Brunswick had been adverse to free schools, it is remarkable hew little opposition the measure encountered in the legislature. The most important idvlsion in the assembly was that taken when a new section was added to the bill providing that all schools con ducted under its provisions should be non-sectarian. carried by a vote of twenty-five to ten. volved in working out the system were great. the Province were, from selfish motives, This was The difficulties in Many persons in strongly opposed to free schools and contended that the education of the children was the sole responsibility of the parents. Many held that, since free schools were not provided in England,“ New Brunswick did not need them. Others argued that the idea was republican # The Elementary Education Act of 1870 in E n g l a n d .provided for the establishment of schools controlled by local school boards and for the levying of local taxes for the support of schools to supplement the government grants and pupils' fees. -In 1830 ele mentary education was made fully compulsory and in 1891 largely free. Ontario Teachers' Manual— History of Education, p. 187. 1. Jsmes Hannay-— History of New B runswick. Vol. II. pp. 295- 296 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 and revolutionary since Massachusetts had been the first com munity on this continent to adopt free schools, and also was the first to rebel against the k i n g ’s authority. In the motherland, the schools were at this time largely under the control of the Church of England, and many persons in New Brunswick were in favor of schools controlled by that denomination. The Roman Catholics, led by their clergy, were hostile to non-sectarian schools and a large number in the Anglican Church were opposed to the exclusion^religious instruction from the school curriculum. With the Presbyterians, Wesleyans, and Baptists non-sec tarian schools were popular, These sects were willing to depend upon their homes and their Sunday schools for religious in struction. While the bill was being discussed, numerous petitions were received asking that, in any school bill which might be passed, provision be made for denominational schools, for Roman Catholic Schools. especially The largest number of signatures, about 2,000, was on a petition from Saint John, but one from C-loucester had about 1,000 names subscribed. Most of these petitions were headed by the parish priest, while two of them were signed by the Roman Catholic bishops of Saint John and Chatham. In 1871 ~ a Common Schools Act was passed, repealing all then existing school acts, making assessment compulsory, and en acting ths.t all schools to be entitled to legislative aid under its provision must be non-sectarian. 1. The Act did not interfere pM Victoria Cap. 21 R eproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 102 with the right of any class of persons of any denomination to maintain, outside the common school system, schools in which distinctive religious doctrines might he taught; nor could it take away the right of the legislature to grant public money in aid of their support. However, the legislature did with draw grants from denominational institutions. "One of the immediate effects,of the new school law was to abolish all the special grants which had been given to denominational schools and academies. These had amounted during the last year they were given to about $5,000. The largest institutions,which were effected by this change, were Wesleyan Academy (Mount Allison) at Sackville, which received $1,200 a year; the Madras Schools, which received $500; the Roman Catholic Schools at Fredericton, Saint John and other places in the Prov ince, which received in the aggregate $2,400; and the Baptist Seminary at Fredericton which received $600." 1 Organlzed O p position. The clergy and laity of the Roman Catholic minority felt aggrieved. 155S They claimed that under the Parish Schools Act of (which had been repealed) they possessed the privilege of maintaining schools of a denominational character, legislative aid was granted, to which and that their rights were pro tected by the exceptions of the 93rd clause of the British North America Act, 1567. Meetings were held in many places, objecting to the new Act. "The members of the Roman Catholic denomination of this city were present in large numbers at the mass held in the Cathedral on Sunday morning, it being understood that the Bishop would address the congregation in refer 1. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. II. P. 300 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 ence to the School Lav/ and the action of the Catholic body towards it. The address in the commencement re ferred particularly to what had been done for edu cation by the Catholics of the City and Province in years past. He reminded them that the amount expended by them for school purposes in Saint John was in the neighbor hood of one hundred thousand dollars, this including the School of the Christian Brothers and other educational departments. He next referred to the School Laws in force in other parts of the Dominion and in the several American States and instanced the case of Quebec where the Catholic body being the ruling one had in their a.doption and carrying out of a law conceded to the Prot estants the rights which they claimed they had ashed for they had asked for schools of their own, to be managed by the teachers they chose and this privilege had been allowed the Catholics in Ontario where the Protestants were in power. The Bishop further said that education and religion were to be joined together and that where it was not so confusion must reign, and crimes prevail. To be good members of a community a Christian education was indispensable. In regard to the Catholic schools of United States he stated they were recognized and al lowed to exist with their peculiar books and their own teachers. There the Christian Brothers had over sixty thousand pupils under their care. He thought that if the Protestants were fair and reasonable such rights should be allowed the Catholics in this Province and their wish to educate their children with their own money acceded to. He was willing that both parties should contribute and schools should be general In cases where the Cath olics existed in numbers too few to maintain educational institutions of their own, but did not in such event wish the Bible read in their sessions. The impression he had formerly entertained regarding the effect of the law upon the Christian Brothers was that it would not prevent their teaching, and this idea he had formed from the action and representations of the members of the Gov ernment. He concluded by remarking that although the Catholics had me.de every demand of a reasonable nature the things they had asked had been refused, and now nothing remained for them pending the amendment of the existing law, but to raise money for support of schools of their own.” As the Common Schools Act was not to come into operation until Jan. 1st, 1£>72, and as the constitution gave the GovernorGeneral authority to disallow acts of the provincial legislature 1. Saint John Daily News., January JO, 18J2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. within a year after their passing, the Roman Catholics immedi ately petitioned the Privy Council of Canada to advise the Gov ernor-General to exercise his prerogative. Sir John A. Macdonald, Minister of Justice, replied to the petitions reporting that the legislature of New Brunswick had acted entirely within its jurisdiction in passing the Common Schools Act, 1S71; that it had the sole power to redress any grievance under it, and to give or withhold public money in sup port of schools; that no separate or dissentient schools, coming under the protecting clause of the British North America Act, were sanctioned by any law of the legislature of New Brunswick; and that, therefore, the Governor-General had no right to inter fere, and the Act must go into operation. Action of Dominion Parliament. Unfortunately the opposition to the Common Schools Act was not confined by provincial boundaries for in April 1372 Mr. Costigan, the representative for Victoria County in the House of Commons, attacked the law on the grounds that it was unfair and contrary to the 93rd- clause of the British North America Act. He moved that an humble address be presented to His Excellency the Governor-General to disallow the New Brunswick Schools Act. He justified this motion on the grounds that the sections of the lav/ "forbidding the imparting of any religious instruction to the pupils was opposed to the sentiments of the entire population of the Dominion in general, and to the re ligious convictions of the Roman Catholic population, in particular. That the Roman Catholics of Mew Bruns- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 wide cannot without acting unconsclentiously send their children to schools established under the lav; in question, and yet are compelled, like the remainder of the popu lation, to pay taxes to be devoted to the maintenance of these schools. That the law is unjust, and causes much uneasiness among the Roman Oatholic population, in general, disseminated throughout the whole Dominion of Canada and that the state of affairs nay prove the cause of disas trous results to all the Confederated Provinces." 1 This motion failed to pass the House of Commons, being voted down 126 to During the autumn and winter of 1672, Sari Dufferin, Governor-C-eneral of Canada, transmitted to Sari Kimberley, Colonial Secretary, documents of the School-Law case, and the arguments of the government of Mew Brunswick, and of the counsel of the Catholic Bishop of Saint John, thereon. These were submitted to the Law Officers of the Crown, whose opinion sustained the earlier decision of Sir John A. Macdonald. Early in the spring of 1673, this opinion was corroborated by the judgement of the Supreme Court ^ in the case of parties who contested the legal ity of an a.ssessment on the ground that it included a sum for the support of schools levied under the authority of the Com mon Schools Act, which they held was unconstitutional. Thus by the highest legal authorities the constitutional rights of the New Brunswick legislature to pass the Common Schools Act was vindicated. The aggrieved parties felt that the matter should be taken before the Privy Council, the supreme authority of the Empire, and a sum of §5»000 was voted by the Dominion Government to enable arty party to appeal to Her Maj esty-in-Council on the subject of the Nev.- Brunswick Schools 1. 2. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. II. P. 303* Renaude et al7 -Judgement of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, upon the question of the Constitutionality of Common Schools Act. 1671, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. io6 Acts. Privy Council Decision. The Roman Catholic Bishop of Saint John took steps to bring the matter before the Privy Council. On July 17, 1S7^, the ques tion was argued before the Judicial Lords of the Privy Council in the case of an appeal from an adverse judgement of the Supreme Court of Hew Brunswick (p.105) "by a ratepayer of Saint John who objected to the assessment for school purposes made on the city, on the ground that the Schools Act, under authority of which it had been ordered, was void. The counsel of the appellant was kept strictly to the short point at issue, ’whether the general exception to the 93I’<3- clause of the British North America Act protecting m y rights or privi leges with respect to denominational schools which any class of persons might have had by law in the province applied to schools conducted under the Parish School Act of 1B5&, which was re pealed by the Act of 1S71. The arguments advanced by the coun sel of the appellant were deemed so conclusive against his case that the counsel of the New Brunswick government was not called on to argue in defence. Their Lordships ruled "there is nothing in the ground taken on which to found a claim with respect to denominational schools, nor any thing unconstitutional in the Schools Act," 1 and dismissed the appeal with costs. The minority was thus driven from its last refuge. The leaders of the minority could not demand another 1. Maher vs. Town Council of Portland. Argument before the Privy Council of Great Britain 1S7^» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 107 judicial hearing. case, The door of appeal was closed against their still from the pulpit and the press their spiritual and political leaders kept the question alive. "At the general elections held in June, 127^-, the only is sue was the Schools Act, and in many of the constituencies it was fiercely abated. The endeavours of the Roman Cath olics to uphold the principle of separate schools had the effect of driving the Protestant electors into the opposite camp, and the question became, for the most,one of religion. The result of the election was that out of a house of forty-one members, only five candidates were returned who favored separate schools. These represented the Acadian counties of Gloucester, Kent and Madawaska."- Sducational Conditions in Gloucester. The Common Schools Act was resisted in all the counties in which the Roman Catholics were in a majority but it was in the county of Gloucester where this resistance became most acute. The people of Gloucester, the majority of whom are French, were greatly influenced by” newspapers which circulated widely in the county and which did much to excite a feeling of active hostility. The census showed that in 1271 2 Gloucester County had 12,210 inhabitants of whom more than ninety per cent, were Ro man Catholics. This would seem a.n ideal area in which to carry on a denominational school system, yet more than one-half of the adult population was unable to write. In that county during the last term previous to the Common Schools Act there were only 22 schools with 222 pupils enrolled and an average attendance of !!-39. In the parish of Saumarez with 2,lo2 inhabitants there was only one school with an average daily attendance of sixteen. 1. 2. G. U. Hav— Canada and Its Provinces. Vol. XIV. p. 4-22. James Hannay— History of New Brunswick. Vol. II. p. 306. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. log In the parish of Caraquet, with 3 > H 1 inhabitants, there were only three schools with the total enrollment of 73 and an average attendance of 36 • ously neglected. Apparently, education had been seri In the sixty-seven years, 1371 to 1938,^ the number of schools in this county has increased from 23 to 204ana the average daily attendance increased more than eightfold while the total population for the county has increased twofold. A corresponding increase is noted in the school attendance for the counties of Kent and Madawaska. The facts show that where the opposition to the introduction of free schools was greatest, the greatest benefits were derived from the system. Riot in Gloucester. In the county of Gloucester the hostility to the Common Schools Act was most intense. In January, 1375> serious riot occurred at Caraquet involving loss of life and making it nec essary to send a military force to that place to protect life and property. This riot cost the Province $20,000 in military and legal expenses. "Some ratepayers of the district of Caraquet met in a school house to vote money for school purposes. A party of French men from the surrotmding country broke up the meeting in a violent manner, and took possession of the building. They afterwards behaved themselves riotously in the settlement, compelling certain persons to sign a document pledging themselves not to vote for assessment; they breathed out fire and slaughter generally against prominent supporters of the lav/, and besieged a member of the local government in his house, drawing off quickly, however, when they found that they were threatened with a hot reception. A party of militia from the neighboring county of Northumberland was brought by the Sheriff to quell the riot. On forcing 1. Report of Parish Schools 1 3 7 1 .and Annual Report of Depart ment of Education, School Year Ended June 3 0 > 1 9 3 8 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. a way into a house where some of the rioters were lodged, one of the militia men was shot dead, and a Frenchman shared the same fate." ^ Some persons stress the religious as well as the political aspect of the contest over the Schools Act and point out that it was synchronous with the great conflict in the German Empire be tween the State and the Papacy, but those who are more tolerant attach little significance to this fact. 1. Macmillan1s Magazine— Wo. 1°5 (January, IS76) p. 225. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER XI FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM System Explained. The Free or Common Schools Act,-*- which came into effect on the first of January 1S72 , was patterned after a similar act passed seven years earlier in Nova Scotia. Under this Act the support of elementary schools was derived from three sources: Provincial aid to teachers, assessment. the county school fund, district The parish as an administrative unit (p. 75) was abandoned and the much smaller school district adopted in its place. The adoption of such a small unit was an error, because sufficient resources are often not a.vailable to provide by taxation funds to operate a satisfactory school. now- 1+37 ^ such districts for which "Poor Aid" There are is provided by the government. The object of the Free School Law was the establishment throughout the'entire Province of a well-equipped system of schools in which the instruction given should be open to the children of all, the poor and rich alihe; the quality of instruction good e- nough for all; and the general character of the instruction non- 1. 3^ Victo r i a . 2. Annual Reoort of Department of Education. 1939* PP*17^-177 Cap. 21. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill sectarian and national like, the legislature establishing the system, and the government administering it. The provincial grant in aid of teachers was continued from the previous acts, while a county assessment was imposed at a fixed rate, and district assessment according to the needs of each district to provide salaries for teachers. Lands and schoolhouses and all other district requirements were to be provided by district assessment; the trustees were authorized to raise money for school houses by debentures. The classifi cation of the children of cities, towns and other large dis tricts into grades, according to the attainments of the children, was required; the school district was made the unit of school operation, affiliated on the one hand with the county in the matter of assessment fund, and in the matter of teachers' administration. on the other with the Province grants and general supervision and The trustees of each district were to be elected by the people except in cities and incorporated towns. In these latter districts the G-overnor-in-Council was to appoint three trustees, one of whom would be the chairman, and the city or town council, four.' An inspector for each county was to be appointed by the Board of Education. The Board itself was en larged by making the President of the University a member, as were also its powers and those of the Chief Superintendent. A Normal School for the Province was to be maintained by the Board, to whom was committed full authority to make arrangements respect ing the training and licensing of teachers, and the subjects, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 texts, and course of instruction for all schools. Theodore H. Rand was appointed Chief Superintendent of Edu cation when the new lav/ went into force. He had held the same position in Nova Scotia during the first years of the free school lew in that province. Dr. Rand was an excellent organizer, and his activity and experience proved very effective in fostering the system of free schools. The Free Schools Act had one 'unpopular feature— taxes. Where there were children of school age in the family the new act was popular; but where there were no children and property owners had to contribute to educate all the children in the district, there was much murmuring. Roman Catholic Opposition. The question of non-sectarian schools continued to be a burning question until l£75>^ when the King administration came to a.n agreement with the leading Roman Catholic members of the House of Assembly that smoothed the difficulty for a time. Under this arrangement members of religious orders were considered eli gible for licenses as school teachers after passing the prescribed examination; buildings, the property of such orders or of the Roman Catholic Church, might be rented for school purposes by civic school boards and religious instruction might be given to Roman Catholic children after school hours. The attitude of the French is given in the following: "Le gouvernement s'apercut-il du danger qu'il v avait a jeter, sans raison, le pays dans de tels desordres? Toujours est-il qu'un compromis, survenu en 12>7^> ramena la 1. Minutes, Board of Education. August 6, 12>75« R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 paix trop longtemps troublee. Dans toutes les ecoles, on p^rmettait 1 'enseignement religieux en dehors des heures regleraentaires des classes; le p o r t }/de 1 'habit religieux etait tolere et, par un privilege special, les membres des Communautes religieuses tout en restant astreints a passer leu.r examen pour obtenlr le brevet d 'enseignement, etaitent dispenses du sejour reglementaire a l ’ecole normale. Dans les ecoles frequentees pour les Acadiens, I 1usage de la langue francaise etait autorise comrne langue de communi cation, et meme 1'ltude de francais ius^u'au sixieme degre. D'ailleurs, les commissaires de^chaque ecole conservaient le droit de choisir 1 1instituteur qui,apres les heures de classe, enseignerait le catechisme aux enfants. A peu pres satisfaits au point de vue religieux les Acadiens cnt tire tout le profit possible du nouveau svsteme scolaire obligatoire depuis 1 S 71 .” ^ Soon the opposition to Free Schools w a s 'negligible and the following exerpts from inspectorial reports are taken as proof of the wide acceptance of the n e w system. The Inspector for County of Madawaska w rites: "I find the people, as they begin to understand the Law, to be, as a general thing, very much in favor of it, and were it not for the very determined opposition of the Clergy, I think that in a short time the people of this County would enjoy the benefits of education in nearly every district in the County." 2 The same approved is expressed in the inspector's report from Gloucester County: "The nature of the School Law is much better understood than it was at first, and consequently the unreasonable and vio lent opposition to it which prevailed so long is rapidly subsiding. Many ratepayers, finding they must contribute to the support of Free Schools, have wisely conclud„ed to secure for their own children a share of the benefits which these schools afford. " At the formal opening of the Normal School building Aug. 1^4-, 1$77> Or. Rand, Chief Superintendent of Education, in his address said: "When I inform you that about eighty-five per cent, of all 1. 2. 3. Omer LeGresley— L'Enseignement du Frangais En Ac a d i e . Annual Reoort of Schools, 1375. P. 11. ------ ---T b i a ." p. pp.151-152. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. the school property owned by the school trustees through out the Province has been secured by the operation of the present law, I have given you a fact of tremendous educa tional import. Neither Ontario nor any of the other prov inces surpasses Nova Scotia in respect of school atten dance. Today, New Brunswick stands fairly abreast Nova Scotia in the proportion of her school attendance, and it is rapidly outstripping her in many of the essentials of a healthy and efficient school system, notwithstanding that the Free School banner was unfurled in Nova Scotia seven years earlier than in this Province." 1 The period following 1S 7 2 was featured by the inauguration of an improved teacher-training program; proved inspection; a building program; im the prescribing of uniform texts of superior quality; better paid teachers and a system of grading. No uniform curriculum had ever been pursued in the Parish Schools and it was not until 1S7S that one was prepared for the Common Schools. The Act of 1S71 provided that, after five years from its inception, the provincial aid to teachers should be apportioned., in par^, according to the results of an examination conducted by the inspectors. This scheme, called the "Ranking System" was postponed until 1S7&, since it could not be enforced until a uniform course was adopted. Improved Attendance. The progress of education in New Brunswick may be judged p from the increase in attendance. In 1&52 the proportion of the school population to the whole population was 1 : 10.4-2. With the introduction of free schools (IS 72 ) the proportion 1. 2. Educational C ircular, Vol. I. No. c. Based on Annual Report of Schools. (October 1877)* p. 56, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 became 1 : 7.19. The proportion in 1932 was 1 : ^.89. Early attempts to stimulate attendance relied upon prizes which were bought by trustees out of school funds. was not a marked success. The plan The absence of a compulsory clause in the Free Schools Act (1&72 ) was one of its greatest defects. It was not sufficient to make the compulsory clause oermissive as had been done in this -Province; but binding as in Massachusetts. The first Attendance Act was passed in 15SS7. "The recent Act (l$$7) passed by the Legislature permitting Boards of Trustees the option of enforced attendance at the schools, or not, has not been taken advantage of in any instance in New Brunswick." 1 Another compulsory attendance act was passed in 1906 ^ but it too was ineffective due to its oermissive character. The question of school attendance has been,- and still is, a serious matter. The average school attendance for the Prov ince during school year 1So5 was 53.35 P©*1 cent. figures show that in 193° Comparable 3 was 77.1 per cent. It is interesting to note that in 1SS6 the "New England Journal of Education" described the New Brunswick educational „ system as "theoretically the best in America." * However good the system may have been considered by others there was considerable difficulty in working out the provisions of the Free Schools Act. Bathurst School Case. In IS93 so much friction developed in the system that the 1. ?. 3. b. New Brunswick Journal of Education. Vol.I, No. 11, March 12>2>7> p. Si 6 Edward VII. Cap. 13 Educational Review. (November 1939) Vol. LIV. No. 3 New Brunswick Journal of Education. (May 1 & & J ) , Vol. I. No. 13 p. 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Supreme Court was called upon to adjudicate the difficulties. The complaint concerning the schools was made on the following grounds:^- (a) That Reverend James Rogers, Roman Catholic Bis hop of the Diocese of Chatham, with the view to having the com mon schools in District No. 2, in the town of Bathurst, under the control of religious teachers of the Roman Catholic Church, did enter into an agreement with and come to an understanding with certain members of the Roman Catholic Church of that dis trict to bring in members of certain religious teaching orders of the Roman Catholic Church with a view to having the children of Protestant parents taught within such conventual schools. (b) The Sisters of Charity who were employed as teachers by the trustees of the town and village schools were contrary to law licensed to teach in such districts, were examined under special arrangements inasmuch as they involving special privileges, which were refused to other teachers. (c) That the Roman Catholic priests exercising their religious offices in the school district had interfered with the schools. (d) That by reason of the influence of the Roman Catholic author ities in the school district, Roman Catholic holy days, not being school holidays, have been observed in the public schools there, (e) That the grading of the schools in the district had not been conducted according to law. (f) That inferior and incompetent teachers have been employed in the district. The citizens of the town became very much alarmed by the violent demonstrations and two Protestant clergymen sent 1. The Hon. John J. Fraser— Report of the Legislative Commission Relating to the Bathurst Schools. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. H7 the following telegram to the Attorney-General: Bathurst Station, March 22th, 1293. "Hon. A. G. Blair, M. P. P. Fredericton, N. B..* On verge riot this morning— door private school— barricaded number Roman Catholics in vicinty when Protestants arrived— our liberties and rights threatened— call upon government for protection. J. Seller, A.F.Thomson." However, it is generally believed that the Protestant citizens of the town were not in danger. On November 23rd, 1293 > Jas. Fraser, Judge of the Supreme Court gave the following ruling: 1 (a) That no Conventual Schools have been established in Bathurst Town in the direction indicated in the complaint. (b) That the evidence does not establish that there have been any Coman Catholic priestly clerical interference with the schools in the town. (c) That the trustees in the Town have not discharged their duties as trustees as efficiently as they might have done in re gard to having a satisfactory grading of the schools of the Town. (d) That it is not a violation of the Common Schools Act to employ as teachers sisters of religious order of the Roman Catholic Church and to permit them while, teaching to wear the garb of their order. (e) 1. That the holding, before or after school hours, of religious Fraser. Op. C i t . R eproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. llg exercises, for the benefit of Roman Catholic scholars by a teacher who is a sister of one of the religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church does not render a school sectarian. General illwill was the result. The Roman Catholics were annoyed by the complaints and the Protestants were disappointed in the ruling of the court. Consolidated Schools. With a view of correcting the error of establishing the small school district as the unit of administration an Act 1 was passed in 1902 whereby three or more districts might unite to establish a consolidated school and provide courses in Man ual Training and Domestic Science. In 1903; 3r. James W. Robertson, acting for Sir William Macdonald established a consolidated school at Kingston and maintained it for three years. "The school was the first consolidated school in the Do minion, established by Sir William Macdonald of Montreal, a native of Prince Edward Island. Sir William, a noted philanthropist,who was greatly interested in rural edu cation, working in connection with Dr. James W. Robertson, eminent educationist, and an energetic committee, chose Kingston as a suitable site on account of its location, far from the railroad, where children find it difficult to benefit by the advantages afforded city pupils. The Macdonald fund furnished the $ 60,000 necessary for building and equipment and also all the money for all the expenses for three years. It was one of the first schools in Canada to include domestic science and manual training in its curriculum." At the end of the three years from the opening of the school, the d i s tricts,united in the consolidation, decided to 1. 2. 2 Edward V II. Cap. Telegraph-Journal, Aug. 23rd, 1939. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 continue to operate the school, and it continues till this day. Children living at a distance were conveyed to the school in vans, half the cost being borne by the government. Liberal grants ^ have been made by the government for the continuation of the school at Kingston and for the other consoli dated schools that have since been established at Florenceville, Riverside, Rothesay, Hampton, Bay du Vin and Deer Island. The grants now amount to $ 10,000 annually. These consolidated schools seem to be the logical solution to the problem of rural education, but the ratepayers seem to fear the increased cost of such schools. At the close of the Boer War, 1901, Britain was eager to establish in South Africa a ■satisfactory school system. After examining the schools in the various parts of the empire it was decided to adopt the New Brunswick system, probably because of the bilingual situation found in both of these areas. Eldon Mullln, Principal of the Normal School, and several other teachers went to South Africa, to help establish the school system there. In a land such as this, with democratic ideals it is hard to believe that a- free school system would meet with any organized opposition, but the attitude in certain areas, where the Roman Catholics predominate, is not conducive to the growth of such a system. It is believed that with each succeeding generation the free school system becomes more firmly entenched as one of our democratic institutions. 1. Manual of School Law of New Brunswick, p. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. . CHAPTER XII. CURRICULUM. The educational efforts of the French missionaries (p.12) and the early English schools, founded Ly the various religious organizations and private individuals, v/ere directed chiefly towards the teaching of the principles of the Christian re ligions (p. 22), At no period in our history has religious in struction been missing from the school curriculum. Objectives. From the bginning stress has been laid on the "three R's" The curriculum for the Pa.rish Schools, as given in the Act of 1S05 ^ (p. ^S) consisted of English language, writing and arith In 1S16 ~ the curriculum had been extended; orthography metic. reading, writing, and. arithmetic were the required subjects. The teachers employed, by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel v/ere charged "to to of as 1. 2. 3. teach the scholars to read truly and distinctly, also write a plain legible hand, in order to the fitting them for useful employments; with as much arithmetic shall be necessary for the same purpose." > 4-5 George III. Cap. XII. 56 George III. Cap. XXI. W. 0. Raymond— New Brunswick Schools of Olden T i m e s . (February 18?3) Vol. VI. No". 9 . p. 171 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 121 The Madras system had as its constant aim to impart to the children religious instruction (p. 65 ) and to provide a useful education, adapted to circumstances in which they were likely to he placed. It was not the aim of the society to fur nish instruction in the "dead 11 languages hut to give that type of education which today would he called practical. "The instruction given In the Madras schools in 1S^5> em braced reading, writing, spelling, slate and mental arith metic, geography, grammar, English history, natural his tory, lineal and. model drawing, and singing." The object of the course of study was to induce the chil dren to think and make use of judgement rather than to burden the memory with facts. In the Parish Schools of this period - the curriculum con sisted of the usual subjects (p. 73), Spelling, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, English Grammar, Geography, History, and Geometry together with the following subjects: Bookkeeping, Mensuration, Lana Surveying, Navigation, and Needle-work, which show a leaning toward vocational education at this early date. Navigation is readily understood as a school subject when one considers there were no railways and transportation was car ried on by boat. Ship-building was a leading industry. The importance of lumber industry at this time accounts for the mensuration and land-surveying. An examination of samples of elementary school work pre pared by the pupils of schools in 1S53 astonishes one. Pupils solved Intricate problems in foreigh exchange, which was an im 1. 2. Saint John Globe. August 6 , 1910. G. V/. Bailey— Our Schools. 134-7 to 185S. p. 10 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 portant subject due to the extensive lumber trade of the colony with European nations. These subjects made up the curriculum for some years. A- bout 1276 Drawing, Music, Health and Temperance, and Natural Science v/ere added. Pressure from the high schools forced Algebra and Latin into the last grades of the elementary school about 1900. Practical Courses Introduced. A more modern and practical turn was given to education by the establishment of consolidated schools and the introduction of manual training, domestic science and school gardening into the u p p e r grades of the elementary school. The great interest in these subjects was aroused and the schools made possible by the generosity of Sir William Macdonald of Montreal. Through • the funds provided by him a manual training department was es tablished in the Provincial Normal School in Fredericton in 1900. Provision.having been made for the training of the student teachers, manual training, domestic science and school gardening were introduced into all the consolidated and many urban schools (p. U S ) . Manual Training. In 1902 ^ an Act was passed to encourage manual training (which included Domestic Science for girls). 1. 2 Edward VII. The chief pro- Cap. 3g Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 visions of the Act were: "(a) 'J?o provide any Board of School Trustees, whether in a city, town or rural district, which shall provide suit able accommodation in connection with the schools under its jurisdiction, for instruction in manual training, there shall be granted a sum not less than one-half of the total amount expended for the necessary benches, tools, material and other equipment. (b) To any licensed teacher who shall obtain from any Manual Training School approved by the Board of Education a certificate of fitness to teach the system, and who shall in addition to the other regular work of the school under his charge, give instruction in manual training in accor dance with the regulations to be made by the Board of Edu cation, there shall be granted in addition to the provin cial gra.nt provided for by the said Act, the sum of fifty dollars per annum." ^ t The Provincial Normal School gave, and continues to give, a special course to prepare teachers to qualify as manual training instructors. The larger centers soon established manual training depart During the school year 1903-^ ^ there were was a total ments. of 990 pupils enrolled in departments at Fredericton, Woodstock, Florenceville, Kingston, Jones' Forks. St. Stephen, Inches Ridge, Kascarene and The last three places had one-room rural schools. Closely associated with the manual training work, so gener ously sponsored by Sir William Macdonald, was the management of school gardens and courses ernment, in nature study. The provincial gov eager to cooperate in the promotion of an intelligent love for farm life and agricultural pursuits, provided instructors to assist trustees and teachers in establishing school gardens. Part of the expenses was borne by the Macdonald Fund. 1. 2. Annual Report of Schools 1901-2 p. LX. Annual Report of Schools 1903 -^ p. XLVI. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 124A special grant was provided qualified teachers by an order-in-council passed in August, I 903 : "Duly licensed teachers who shall have qualified for giving instruction in Nature Lessons in connection with school gardens, by completing a prescribed course at the Macdon ald Institute at Guelph, or at any other Institution ap proved by the Board of Education, and who shall there after give instruction in said subjects at any public school having a school garden attached, shall receive from the provincial revenues at the rate of thirty dollars per an num in addition to the ordinary provincial grant." 1 For a time school gardens flourished especially in rural sections but today there is not a single school garden to be found. Physical Education. In 1Q12 ^ the Board of Education authorized the intro duction of a system of physical education for all schools. In struction in the teaching of this subject was given to studentteachers at the normal school and for teachers at various cen ters in the Province. To aid this movement, which has for its object the moral and physical betterment of the future citizens of the dominion, Lord Strathcona, the Dominion High Commissioner in London, contributed $ 5 0 0 ,000 to form "The Strathcona Trust Fund" to aid in the formation and training of cadet companies and to encourage physical education in the schools. Prizes from this fund are given annually to schools that excel in this work. Unfortunately, this work was developed and supervised by the Commanding Officer of Kilits.ry District No. 1. 2. 7 and the physi- Annual Report of Schools 1903-^. page X L V L 2 George V. Cap. 3^ R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 125 cal education degenerated to a modified form of military drill and formal calisthenics. Realizing the need of a change in the physical education program, in l$Ho 1 the Board of Education again assumed control. Elementary Agriculture. In 1913 alarmed by the increasing urbanization of the pop ulation, the Board of Education, in order to arouse in the chil dren of the rural areas an appreciation of their environment and a more intelligent interest in agriculture, provided a course in Elementary Agriculture and Nature Study. Activity Program. During the next twenty-five years the curriculum changed little. The prescribed boohs might change but the subjects and methods remained the same. In 1939 "the curriculum committee prepared a Program of Studies very different from the one for merly followed. The "activity" approach was attempted for the first time in the Province. "There must be provision for the child to do things. There will be provision for first-hand experience with both people ana things.---------- In the past the activities of pupils have been very much restricted being largely con fined to the more passive type of reading, making notes, memorizing and reciting: but with the organization of work around comprehensive projects of the class, or of groups of pupils, more active and social experience may be enjoyed by the children." 3 1. 2. 3. Minutes of the Board of Education, February 15, 19^0. 3 C-eorge V. Cap. 19 Programme of Studies for Mew Brunswick Schools, pp.5-6 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 The usual elementary subjects are still taught hut v/ere regrouped.; Social Studies took the place of History and Ge ography, and Art now includes Drawing, Modelling, Carving, and Pointing. The committee in charge of curriculum revision in 193^ had as members several of the persons who had studies at American universities in recent years. rnerican educators The influence of A- is evident, but throughout the Teachers* Manual there is reference to such British studies as the "Hadow Report, 1931" an(l the "Report on Books in the Public Elementary Schools, 1928". It is hoped that this new curriculum contains the best ideas of both British and American educators. There is con siderable evidence to show that this program of studies is almost ideally suited to the well equipped urban schools. In the rural areas, where there is little equipment, and some times as many as ten grades are taught by one teacher, of the new course is not so evident. However, the success sufficient time has not elapsed since its introduction to a.llow a proper eval uation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER XIII LICENSING- AND TRAINING- OP TEACHERS. Sarly_LloenBes, While it is evident that the first schools were private ventures, it is clear that an effort was made to keep the stan dards for teachers as high as possible, and for this reason one finds in the Royal Instructions to Governor Carleton: 11We do further direct that no schoolmaster who shall ar rive in the said Province from this kingdom be hence forward permitted to keep school without the license of the Lord Bishop of London, and that no person now there nor that shall come from other parts, shall be permitted to keep school in New Brunswick without your license first obtained." 1 The early teachers were often old soldiers, or women of limited means, without any professional training and with low academic standards when measured by present day standards. In 1537 County Boards of Education 2 were established and among other duties assigned them was the examination of persons desiring to teach. In 1542 5 all school licenses previously issued were can celled and only those persons whose competency should be certified I: 3- vm?Ti%” ST1**0"- Report of Colony of New Brunswick, 1542. p. l44 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 12$ by the county examiners, after examination, were licensed to teach. This cancelling 1 of licenses may, possibly, have caused a scarcity of teachers, but the salaries paid were too low to in duce any capable or energetic person to enter the profession. In the debate in the legislature in l&kG the matter of teachereducation was discussed at length. The statement was made by a legislative member, Mr. Payne,* to the effect that the amount received from the Province was so small, and the people so un willing to contribute to the support of schoolmasters that they v/ere often obliged to pick u.p just such teachers as they could find. "Applications came frequently to Saint John for teachers for different schools in the country and he could assure the members that in some cases they had been obliged to wait in the market place when an emigrant vessel arrived, and ask if there was anyone qualified and willing to take charge of a school in the country." LOne of the members for Queens County, Mr. Gilbert, very aptly described the teaching profession as almost the last calling in which anyone would engage. "It was only those who were ruined, both in body and es tate, who would continue in that employment; the halt, the lame and the maimed— those who were good for nothing else— might continue to be parish^schoolrnasters in the country, for no one else would." 2 Cne might expect that under conditions such as these the bill introduced by Mr. Brown of Charlotte, in 1 8 ^ , providing for a normal or proper training school would, receive consider 1. G. S. Fenety— Political Notes & Observations. Vol. 1, 1&4-2. p. 1642. Minutes of Legislative Ass e m b l y , Scrapbook No. 23 . p. 1$9 New Brunswick Museum. 3.. Minutes of Legislative Assem b l y , Scrapbook. No. 23 . p. 19$ New Brunswick Museum. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 able support; but as a matter of fact the apathy of the people towards education also extended to many of the members of the assembly. Until I?11? the highest school authority was the court of general sessions of the peace in each county composed of jus tices, some of whom were illiterate men. The courts met twice a year, had a good deal to do, and generally devoted little time to school matters. There was no uniformity as to quali fications of teachers and the examinations demanded for li censing of teachers must have been superficial and inadequate. Provincial L i c enses. By the Act of lt-^1-7 (p. ? 6 ) the licensing of teachers be came the right of the Provincial Board of Education. Licenses v/ere, at first, valid only in the -parish for which they v/ere issued, but after 13^4-g licenses could be transferred from one parish to another provided the teachers stated the reasons for leaving a parish, and produced a certificate of satisfactory management of their schools signed by the trustees and a certificate from the school trustees in the parishes to which the teachers proposed to move, that there were positions for them. These rules probably were designed to prevent teachers from moving about too readily and to provide a chech upon the number employed. Three classes of licenses were provided and the Provincial grants to the teachers were paid according to the license held. Third Class licenses were issued for a stated parish while Sec- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 ond and First Class licenses were valid only in the county for which they were issued but were transferable if signed by the inspector and the chief superintendent. The large number of French schools made it necessary to provide special training for teachers to be employed in thos e schools. As early as 1852 the Board of Education grappled with the problem and upon the recommendation of the superintendent of education for Canada east, the work called "Guide de I 1In struct eur” was used by the training schools. All licenses issued by the Board of Education v/ere per manent. Often persons who proved incapable of teaching in a satisfactory manner held these licenses and could not be de barred from the profession. Recently steps have been taken to correct this situation. "Beginning with the calendar year lp^-1 no permanent li censes will be issued to Normal school or college gradu ates until they have demonstrated their ability as teachers by1 experience and taken additional professional training." J- Training Schools Established. The Act of 18^7 2 marked the establishment of a central authority. Henceforth the parish schools were governed not only by law but also by the Regulations of the Board of Edu cation. This board consisted of the Lieutenant-Governor and the Executive Council. It had a secretary but no superintendent until 1852 when Rev. James Porter was appointed. 1. 2. The same Act Minutes of Board of Education. June 6, I 9 H0 , 10 Victoria Cap. XVI. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 empowered this hoard to establish a training school for teachers with a model school attached. "Ordered that His Excellency the Lieutenent-Governor should make application to the proper authorities in England to procure a teacher for the Model and Training School to be established under the late act for the improvement of Parish Schools. That the salary of such a teacher should be fixed at £l b 6 that the sum of £50 should be drawn from the treas ury to nay the outfit and passage of the teacher."^ The first training school was opened at Fredericton in lS^-7 and J, Marshall D'Avray of England was appointed Master of the Training and Model School. Towards the close of 1 gU-S a training and model school was established in Saint John. Edmund K. Duval, the principal of the British (National) School there became principal after being in attendance at the Fredericton training school several weeks, to learn the system there. In 1&67 a training school was opened at Chatham with Dr. William Crocket as principal. at Saint John, This school, along with the one closed in 18J0 and a central institution called the Normal School was opened in Fredericton. It would appear that, at first, in the matter of training, preference was given to those persons already employed as teach ers, rather than to persons without experience. "Ordered that a circular letter be written to the clerks of the peace to convene the Board of Education to request that they furnish the Lieutenant-Governor after due in quiry, with the names of two or more competent teachers in each of the respective counties, who would be prepared to attend the training school at Fredericton." 2 1. 2. Minutes of the Board of Education. Minutes of the Board of Education. June 11, . Nov. 11, 1 ^ 7 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 132. Apparently some difficulty was experienced in organizing the school at Fredericton because licenses were granted by the school committees to untrained teachers after 1 S& 7 • "Until the principal Training School in Fredericton and some of the contemplated county Training Schools are in operation it is ordered that school committees grant teachers a li censes on the production of : (1 ) Certificate of the candidate's ability to teach spell ing, reading, writing, arithmetic of whole numbers, in cluding simple interest. (2) A recommendation from the trustees of the school pro posed to be more established, who are also to certify their confidence in the moral character and disposition of the candidate, the sufficiency of the school premises, and the number of children likely to attend the school. (3) A certificate of religious and moral character from the clergyman or master of the communion to which the ma jority of the children in the contemplated school belongs." A board of examiners was appointed for each of these schools and licenses v/ere granted by the Board of Education upon the recommendation of the board of examiners and the principal of a training school. This practice was continued until recently. Both male and female students made application for ad mittance to these training schools but males were given oreference. This may have been because male teachers were more capable of manag_ing the schools, since discipline was usually a serious problem. "Secretary submitted lists of male and female teachers and candidates who desire admission to the Training and Model School. Ordered: That admission be given to eighteen male teach ers and candidates." 2 There seems to have been insufficient accomodation pro vided at the training school because it became necessary to in- 1. 2. Minutes of the Board of Education. J an. 21, IS^S. Minutes of the Board of Education. Mar. 1, 1S4-S. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 sert notices in the provincial newspapers requesting candidates not to proceed to Fredericton in expectation of admission to the training school until they had made application for admission and “been informed that they could be accommodated. Ferlod of T r a ining. At first the period of training given teachers was six weeks, soon this was extended to ten weeks, and it appears that the student-teachers might enter at any time because the work of the training schools was not organized in terms as at present, "Considered Mr. D'Avray's proposition for the establishment of regular terms for the Training Schools. Read also his letter announcing his Intention not to admit any candidate except at the regular intervals of ten weeks." Soon afterwards the period of training was extended to twelve weeks and female students v/ere admitted, but with some hesitation. "Read letter of Mr. Duval, relative to admission of female teachers to the Training School. Ordered: That he may admit as many as can be received without inconvenience in the present establishment, but it will be requisite to enforce perfect propriety." 2 During the years 1871-1377 the period of training was limited to six month, since 1873 the period has been one full school year of nine months. University Training S c hools. Besides the teacher-training provided by the Provincial Normal School, 1. 2. the universities (p. 10) within the Province Ibi d . March 5 , 1S4-9. Minutes of the Board of Education. Oct. 26, 1850. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 13>+ have small departments of education where teachers seeking to obtain licenses for the schools of the Province are trained while working for a degree. The various universities of the United States have played an important part in the preparation of the teachers of New Brunswick. "D. W. Hamilton and John Brittain have completed courses at University of Chicago and at Cornell University and are now finishing their courses at Teachers' College of the University of Columbia." 1 This marks the first attempt ment on the part of the Depart of Education to send teachers abroad for special training. This practice has been spasmodically followed since that time. p the expenses and tuition of twenty During the summer of 1939 teachers who attended American universities were paid in part by the Department of Education. Trueman 3 when speaking of Canadian education says: "It would be provincial of us to claim that we do not wish to imitate the United States. The two countries are simi larly situated, and naturally would look for similar so lution of most of their problems." An effort has also been made to keep in touch with English educational practices. held in London. In 1907 ^ an Educational Conference was Among the delegates was J. R. Inch, Chief Super intendent of Education. In 1936, the Chief Superintendent spent some time in England studying the educational system there with a view of adopting the most desirable features in New Brunswick. 1. Annual Report of Schools 1901-2. p. LXIV. 2. Public Accounts of the Province of New Brunswick. 1939. 0. A. 4. 95 G-. J. True man-School Funds in the Province of Q uebec,pc, 142-1^9, Educational Review, (October. 1907) Vol. XXI. Ho. 5. p. 10. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 Summer Schools. In 1323 "*■ the New Brunswick Natural History Society held its first camp at Bocabec in Charlotte County, the second was held in 1335 at Frye's Island near St. G-eorge. were attended by many teachers. These camps After the introduction of ele mentary agriculture into the school curriculum in 1913 these camps were discontinued and instead an Agricultural School was held each summer at Sussex. In 1937 the New Brunswick Summer School of Education and Fine Arts was opened with an enrollment of about J>00. courses lasted for five weeks. employed as instructors. These Several American educators were In 193$ the attendance was over 600. This great increase in attendance can be accounted for by (a) increased interest in education which was aroused by the edu cation survey of Kings County in 1937; (t>) the introduction of a new course of study for the elementary grades; (c) the pro posed reorganization of the schools on the 6- 3-3 system; (d) the high quality of the work done at the first session of the school. While it has been repeatedly recommended by the various officials in the Department of Education that the Normal School provide a two-year teacher-training program, the Board of Edu cation has not been eager to introduce such a program because of the additional expense place upon the student-teacherg. 1. Educational R e v i e w , (September 1387). Vol. I. No. 1. p. 4-. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 Until the Normal School provides training comparable with that given by the best t eachers1 colleges in the United States, the Summer School of Education essary, if the teachers of New and Fine Arts will be very nec Brunswick are to even approach the standards of training demanded by other provinces and in the United States. Webster describes the situation as follows: "Teachers must be manufactured in the cheapest possible manner, and they must be paid the lowest possible sal aries. Hence the employment of so many young women whose services can be obtained at a lower rate than in the case of men. For a long time most teachers have been accustomed to regard positions merely as temporary jobs and consequently have not been ambitious to make a reputation. Most of the young women who enter the profession are immature, inexperienced and poorly equipped for the work of instructing the young, a task which demands wisdom, sympathv and enthusiasm if good results are to be obtained." 1 Rural teachers in New Brunswick ? received as an average yearly salary $652 in 1932 and |5°9 in 1936. This remuneration is inadequate for decent, vigorous, self-respecting livelihood to say nothing of professional improvement. Teachers 1 Institutes. When Dr. Rand, Chief Superintendent of Education, in his address at the opening of the Normal School Building in 1S77 stated: "There should be a permanent Educational Institute for the whole Province, which shall furnish suitable opportunity for all those officially engaged in the work of public education to meet for the discussion of educational sub jects and the promotion in all ways open to them of the organized means of culture for the people. I am happy 1. 2. J. C. Webster— The Distressed Marltlmes. p. 17 Brief submitted to Royal Commission on Dominion-Provincial Relations by Canadian Teachers1 Federation, p. 6. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 to state that the Board of Education has recently author ized the formation of such a system of institutes in con nection with the department," he was following the example set by many of the other provinces and the neighboring states. In July 1S8S ^ the teachers of the Maritime Provinces met at Saint John. Among the speakers at that institute were (a) J. G. Schurman, who later became President of Cornell University; (b) Professor Greene Kuhling, Secretary of the American Institute of Instruction, New Bedford, Massachusetts; London, England; (c) D. J. G. Fitch of (a) Colonel Francis U. Parker of Cook County Nor mal School, Illinois; (e) Mrs. F. W. Parker; (f) Hariett Magee of the. State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Such a number of outstanding American educators must cer tainly have h&d an influence upon the educational leaders of our P r o vince. In 1S97 one of these institutes met at St. Stephen and was international in character, being attended by teachers from Maine and the Province cf New Brunswick. were on the program. Speakers from both countries This emphasizes the tendency of New Bruns wick in recent years to follow the lead of the United States, whereas -in the early years of our provincial history English in stitutions were the models thought worthy of imitation. Provincial educational institutes have been held biennially during the last forty years. County institutes are held annually. The influence of such meetings is difficult to estimate. Teachers usually begin their professional career in remote 1. 2. Educational Circular. Vol. 1. No. 6. 1877• P« 63 Educational Review, September 1SSS, Vol. II. No. 1. p. 19 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 138 rural areas, where there is inadequate supervision. The low salaries paid, the lack of cooperation on the part of the citi zens and the feeling of insecurity soon cause the teachers to seek other employment. A well-trained, fairly permanent staff of elementary school teachers and a better organization of secondary school facili ties would do much for the people as a whole. There is too lit tle appreciation on the part of the Province of its obligation to fit each individual to perform well the duties of an intelli gent citizen. This obligation can be properly discharged only by the Province itself in its public and official capacities. The burden of it consists in the adequate maintenance of a staff of competent teachers sufficient to supply every school— a neces sity that must be frankly faced if a decent and progressive standard of living is to be maintained. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER XIV INSPECTION AND ADMINISTRATION Local Inspection. In the early days of the schools received only occasional and haphazard visits from clergymen and other-interested parties, The schools established by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel were supervised by the Anglican clergy. By the Act of 1802 ^ the justices were assigned the duty of appointing a committee to visit and examine the schools twice a year. This marks the beginning of inspection in the Province. The duties of the Parish School Committee were more care fully determined by the Act of 1 8 0 5 ,2 thus giving the central authority, the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council, a means of check ing up their administration. This Act provided for inspection by a committee from the parish. The Act of 1816 3 provided for a local board of school trustees for each parish to be appointed yearly by the Justices of the Peace for the county. The duties of immediate adminis tration v/ere by this Act vested in the local trustees, who v/ere to procure a school house, hire the teacher, visit and inspect 1. 2. ;>• ^2 George III. ^5 George III. 5b ueorme III. Cap. VI. C ap. XII. Cap. XXII R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. i4o the schools, end make annual report to the justices of their res pective counties. This practice was followed until the Act of 1337 1 authorized the trustees to divide the parish into dis tricts and required then to visit and inspect the schools once in three months. In 134-5 ^ a commission was appointed consisting of James Brown, M. P., John Gregory, and S. Z. Earle, M. D. to make a careful inspection of all parish schools and other institutions receiving provincial aid for educational purposes. This commission recommended the establishment of a training and model school. Provincial Inspection. The Act of 134-7 ' provided for the appointment of two full time inspectors for the schools of the Province. This was a great improvement in the matter of school inspection. The earlier system by the justices provided neither competent inspection nor uniform standards. This Act introduced the idea of a uniform provincial system cf schools and marks the tendency to centralize contol of education. 7/ith the formation in 134-7 ^ of a Provincial Board of Edu cation consisting of the Lieutenant-Governor and the members of the Executive Council, school inspectors came under the direct control of that Board. In 1352 an inspector was appointed for each county. 1. 2. 3. 4-. This 7 William I V . Cap. VIII. Journal of the House of Assembly, 134-4-. p. 16 . 10 Victoria Cap. XXVI. Ibid. R eproduced with perm ission of th e copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 1^1 apparently was not very satisfactory because In the Act of 185$ an inspector was secured for each quarter of the Province and this arrangement was followed until the Free Schools Act of 1S71 provided an inspector for each county. In 1834- the number' of inspectors was limited to six for the province and in 1900 the number was increased to eight. The number has been gradu ally increased until today there are twelve inspectors, who devote their energies largely to the improvement of elementary education. "Inspectors have been relieved of routine work in districts having ten or more teachers yet each inspector has about 160 teachers to supervise. Experience has shown that a supervisor cannot effectively serve more than 123 rural teachers. Either more inspectors should be appointed or each should be provided with an assistant who should be a specialist in Primary Education." 1 Administration. 3v the Act of 1802 (p. 4-6) the parish schools were admin istered by the justices. The Act of 1816 (p. 51) provided for a local school boe.rd of two or more trustees for each parish to be appointed by the justices. administration. The parish was then the unit of In 1837 (p. 75) an Act was passed providing for county boards of education which supervised the administration of the schools. was provided for. In 184-7 (p. 7^) a Provincial Board of Education With the introduction of the Free Schools Act the unit of administration became the school district (p. 110). 1. Annual Report of the Department of Education. 1937- 38 . p. 1 7 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. The Provincial Board of Education directed all educational activities until 1910 - when physical education was placed un der the local committee of the Strathcona Trust by an agreement entered into between the Board of Education and Militia Depart ment of Canada. When elementary agriculture was introduced into the schools in 1913 2 a Director of Elementary Agriculture Education was ap pointed who was under the Department of Agriculture and respon sible to the Minister of that department. With the introduction of Vocational Education in 191S ^ an additional department was established under the Vocational Education Board with a Provincial Director responsible to this board. One notes the general centralisation of control from the beginning in 1 B02 till 1910 , but since that time control has be come more decentralized until the educational system consisted of four units, separate and distinct, under four different bodies directed by four executive heads independent of one an other; Academic, under the Chief Superintendent of Education; Vocational, under the Director of Vocational Education; Agri cultural, under the Director of Elementary Agricultural Edu cation; and Physical Education under the direction of the Dis trict Cadet Officer. With the view of centralizing control, a Minister of Edu cation was appointed in 1936 an<3- s. Director of Education Ser 1. 2. 3. Report of Commission on Education. 1932. Report of Commission on Education. 1932 * Loc. C l t . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. iH-3 vices in 1937. In accordance with this policy of centralization in 1939 1 an Act was passed to establish the Kings County School District. This Act provided for the abolition of the 133 school districts and the 51^ school trustees now holding office and pro vides for one Board of School Trustees for the county. To date (19^) the provisions of the Act have not been carried out, but some preliminary work concerning the reorganization of the Coun ty has been done. 1. 3 George VI. Cap. 59 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER XV PRESENT SITUATION Comparisons. New Brunswick cannot be expected to provide educational facilities comparable with those of the more populous and weal thy provinces and states. The area of New Brunswick is 27,9S5 square miles and the population, in 1931, was 4og,21Q.^ means approximately fifteen persons per square mile. terior is largely undeveloped land. This The in There are few large centers in which to develop complete, modern, school systems. As in the early days only the areas along the coast and the river val leys are settled. creased slowly. (See Appendix p. 1). The population has in During the decade 1921 to 1931 the population increased 5 .2m- per cent. When the wealth per capita, at $1,739 (see p. 11), is con sidered, New Brunswick ranks seventh among the Canadian province Only Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island have less wealth per capita. "New Brunswick has 3*96 per cent, of the d ominion’s popu lation but only 2.56 per cent, of its tax-paying ability." # The figures given were obtained from the Canada Year Book, 19 These are based on the last Dominion Census, 1931. 1. Educational Review. (April, 19^0). Vol. LIV. No. 8. p. 20 R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 1*5 More than one-third of the citizens have French as their mother-tongue. This bilingual situation has increased the dif ficulties of the educators. Although other provinces have introduced the County Unit the unit of school administration for elementary schools in New Brunswick remains the small, obsolete school district intro duced in 1&37 (see p. 75) except in urban communities where the unit is the town, city or municipality. The small unit remains in spite of extreme and unfair inequalities of opportunity, in adequate high school facilities for rural children, and great variations in cost. The citizens are becoming more and more aware of the ob solete educational practices. "There is an increasing demand, especially in the rural dis tricts for improved educational facilities. At present, facilities are being furnished on an uneconomical basis in many school districts; one teacher in a rural school often has only a few pupils when she could as well teach twentyfive or thirty. Attention has been turned to the possi bility of consolidating the schools so that one large dis trict would replace a number of present small districts." Grants. Provincial grants for education have been provided since 1792 (p. 2'4). Little change has been made in the manner of dis tributing these grants since the introduction of the Common Schools Act in IS72. Provincial grants provided in 1931 seventeen per cent,^ of the cost of education which is the least percentage of cost borne 1. 2. St. Croix Courier. July 2 7 , 1939. Kings Co~unty Educational Survey, p. 5. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 1^6 "by the government of any of the three maritime provinces. Appendix p. II. Table I). (See In 1935 the provincial contribution was 1^.7 per cent. 1 Apart from Canada, the tendency in British countries has been to regard education as a national or state service ana the governments* contributions vary from approximately 50 per cent, in England and Scotland to the full amount of 100 per cent, in Australia and New Zealand." The Canadian prvoinces have followed American rather than British practice. ward Island all the Canadian provinces carry a small part of the educational burden. Except for Prince Ed No doubt the example of the neighboring American States and the fact that organized public education be gan earlier in Canada than in England account for the following of the American practices in school finance. (See Appendix p. 11, Table II). The grants of land set aside for schools, when the Province •was young, have, in most cases, been sold long ago. "In Nev.r Brunswich, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, there are no permanent funds and no lands held by the provincial governments for the support of schools," 5 In very rare cases school districts continue to own lands which provide a source of revenue. "The trustees of St. Martins School District No. 2 announced at the annual meeting that they h ad obtained the cooperation of the Dominion Forest Service to survey and cruise the school's woodland, comprising about 50 acres, as a prelim inary step to manage this land after the ftest modern silvacultural methods.". 1. 2. 3. 4-. Annual Report of Schools. 1939. P. 13 Dominion Bureau of Statistics. 1935. G. J. Trueman— School Funds in the Province of Quebec, p. Telegraph-Journal. July 1^, 1959. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 *7 Sources of School Fun d s . There are three sources of money for the support of schools (a) provincial grants, (b) county funds, (c) district funds. The money from the Provincial Treasury for the support of elementary schools is largely distributed in the following man ner : (a) G-rants to Teachers CLASS OF LICENSE First class Second Class Third Class 1-2 §135. 108. Si. YEARS OF EXPERIENCE 2-7 Over 7 $150. §175. 120. l4o. 90 . 100. These grants amounted to more than $4-02,000 for the school year 1938- 39.1 (b) Regular Poor Aid from the Provincial Treasury. VALUATION OF DISTRICT _ ...................to § 8 ,000 . § 8 ,000 . tO §1 2 ,000 . AMOUNT PER TEACHER. l /3 of tea c h e r ’s g o v ’t, grant not to exceed §4-6.00 f of teacher’s g o v ’t, grant not to exceed § 35 .0 0 . (c) There is also special poor aid granted from the Provincial Treasury. The aid to poor districts during the school year 1938- 39 ^ was §16,7*1. The county fund is raised by the levy of taxes of 60 cents for every inhabitant of the county. This sum is assessed ac cording to what the county secretary deems to be the relative valuation for taxable purposes of the real and personal property and income of the several parishes, 1. 2. cities, and towns. Annual Report of the Department of Education, 1959. t>. 211. I b i d . p. 211. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. The grants are paid VALUATION $3 ,000. 5,000. in the following manner: COUNTY FUND to $3,000 to 5,000 to 2,000 REGULAR POOR $120. 120. 90. SPECIAL POOR $^6 . 46. 46. $150. 100. — TOTAL $31§. 266. 136. During the school year 1932-39 1 more than 2249,000 were paid hy the county fund to trustees. The original purpose of the county fund was to eqiiallze the costs of education, but the great variations in assessment nullify its effectiveness "There is a definite tendency towards the multiplying of 'poor districts', either by depressing valuations or by dividing existing districts and building more small, in adequate schools." 2 (c) District funds are raised by taxation. The range in school taxes extended in 1932 ^ from .5 to 116.5 mills, the median was 25.So mills. These figures mean little because of the lack of system in the method of local assessment for school purposes. (Bee Appendix p. Ill, Table 3 ). Attendance. In New Brunswick, during the school year 1938-39 ^ ^-ere were approximately £7>500 pupils in 2,721 departments,of these 1,36^ are ungraded one-room rural schools. (See Appendix p. IV, Graph I ). The ungraded one-room schools wirh an enrolment sometimes 1. 2. 3. 4. Annual Annual Report Annual Report, Department of Education, 1532-39* P* 210. Report of Schools, 1939. p. 15 of the Commission of Education, 1932. p. 25. Report of Department of Sdcuatlon. 1932-39* PP. 172123. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1^9 as low as two oupils, account in part for the increasing cost of education in New Brunswick. (See Appendix p. V, Graph 2). The reports of the inspectors show that many schools continue to operate with an average attendance of less than six. The lav/ 1 provides for the closing of such a school and the con veyance of the pupils to the nearest school. If the law were enforced the cost per pupil would be reduced. The decrease in attendance as the grades are ascended may be accounted for by the fact that (a) economic conditions are such that the early removal of children from school is necessary. (b) The population as a whole is not sufficiently cognizant of the value of education, and there is not the body of public opinion which demands that educational advantages be extended. The members of the legislative in their provision for school ex penditures reflect the indifference of the public. "The proportion of educational expenditure compared with total ordinary expenditures has fallen from 20.2 per cent, in 1910 to S .6 per cent, in 1939." ^ (c) The rural school situation in New Brunswick makes it im possible to provide satisfactory minimum high school facilities and therefore many, who might otherwise desire secondary school education, are forced to do without it. "Approximately 1,100 young men made application for admission to classes conducted under the Dominion-Provincial .Youth Training Program during trie year ended August 31, 1939. The average age of the applicants was twenty years and the average educational standard was grade VI." 3 (d) 1. 2. 3. The lack of a satisfactory compulsory attendance law. The The Schools A c t , 1929 , Section 121. p. 7S. Annual Report of S c h o o l s , 1939. p. 19. Annual Report of Vocational Education B o a r d , 1939. R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 150 present law ^ must be accepted, by the majority of the ratepayers of any school district at the annual meeting before it is effec tive in that district. The fine provided for non-observance of the law by a parent is only two dollars. The compulsory atten dance law is applicable to children between the ages of seven and twelve years inclusive. "The compulsory attendance act should be changed by removing the clause which makes its adoption optional with the rate payers. It should be made obligatory and rural, districts should have the right to employ truant officers." 2 A comparison of the total school population in 1932 (37,500) with the total population of ages six to seventeen in the last census (113, ^ 7 ) reveals that about 26,000 persons of school age are not in school. Parents now send their children to school more regularly and for a longer period of years. A marked improvement has taken place in the past twenty years in the distribution of the school population through the grades in New Brunswick. "In 1913 almost one quarter ( 2 k . 2 & per cent.) were enrolled in grade I, and only 3*3^ Per cent, were in high school. At that time 35.^2 per cent, of all pupils were in the first five grades, while in the year 1932 this figure had dropped to 65.71 ?er cent, ana 10.76 per cent, of enrolled pupils were in high school." 3 When regularity of school attendance is considered Mew Brunswick holds an unenviable position with 77.1 per cent., being surpassed by all the provinces exceot Frince Edward Island and k Saskatchewan. The percentage for all of Canada is 25.9. (See Appendix p. VIII. C-raph 3). 1. 2. 3. k Edward VII. Cap. XV. Annual Report of Schools, 1936. p.l 6 , Annual Report of Schools. 1939. P* 6 . Educational Review (November, 1939 ). Vol. LIV. No. 3 . p. 20 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. • 151. Post of Seineat Ion. In 1912 ^ "by the Public Health Act, provision was made for the medical examination of the pupils of every school in the Prov ince. So far as Canada in concerned New Brunswick was a pioneer in this matter. The attention paid to the health of the children may account in part for the improved school attendance, (See Ap pendix p. IX. Graph k ), and it also may account in part for the increased cost of education. (See Appendix p. X. Graph 5 ). In spite of the increased cost as shown by the tables and graphs in the appendix it should be noted that the cost per cap ita of education in the Province of New Brunswick when compared with the other provinces. Island is the cost less, per capita. ($7.2>0) is low Only in Prince Edward (See Appendix p. XI. Table 6). Teachers1 Salaries. The salaries paid teachers of the elementary schools in New Brunswick are about equal to those paid in the other provinces of Canada. (See Appendix p. VI. Table 4-). The average annual sal aries paid common school teachers during the school year 193S -39 were, for male teachers of the first class, $1 ,016 ; second class $^99>’ e-nd third class $39°; for female teachers of the first class $g 03 ; second class $ 510; and third class $ 390 . The data concerning incomes of other professional groups are not available. 1. 2. 36 & George V . Cap. , Annual Report of Education, I93S-39. p. 191 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. “ 152 "In New Brunswick the Labour and Industrial Relations Act, 1S37, provides for the establishment of minimum rates of wages and maximum hours for both male and female workers. Orders have been issued for a number of individual es tablishments but none of general application in any trade, industry or profession.11 3The expenditure for education in Canada dropped nearly 25 per cent, between the years 1930 and 193^* The rural schools had to bear a disproportionate share of the loss of school revenues. The average salaries of rural teachers in the majority of the provinces is approximately half of the urban salary, yet rural teachers suffered most from the depression when salaries are con sidered. (See Appendix p. VII. Table 5)• "The economic corrmemsation given to school teachers, through out Canada is one of the anomalies of our civilization. Though it is generally higher than it was before the war when the increased cost of living is considered the position of teachers is very little improved." ^ In 1910 the legislature of the Province passed an Act 3 for the pensioning of teachers. This Act provides for those who have taught thirty-five years a pension equal to half of their average annual salary during the last five years, ceed in any case §600. per annum. during the school year 1932-39 ^ the pension not to ex The amount paid in versions was $30,522. Current Tendencies in Education. With the appointment of a Minister of Education in 1936 came the break with traditional educational practices in this Province. 1. 2. 3. A. There has been a shift to pupil activity with the in- Canada Year B o o k , 1939* p. 2^6. J.C.Webster— The Distressed M a r itimes. p. 17 . 1 C-eor^e V. Cap. 17 . Annual Report of Schools, p. 212. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 troduction of the new curriculum (see p. 125). Contemporary problems of the province and the dominion are now being; studied.^ Less emphasis is being placed on home study. ^ Many communities have changed their school records and home reports so that more human information is available. The school year is being ad justed to the seasonal occupations of certain areas. has had all-year school. Saint John Great stress has been placed upon per petuating the ideals of democracy. "It is the main objective of the New Course of Study to build up in the young a lively appreciation of the great importance and immeasurable value of our democratic in stitutions. Under the new approach the school itself becomes a democratic society in which^pupils and teachers practice the democratic way of life."^ In Ijkc correspondence courses were provided for pupils in remote areas. Preliminary steps have been tahen to introduce the larger unit of administration (p. 1^3) • This will have a. tendency to equalize the financial support of education and at the sane time provide rural high schools which will give better educational opportunities to rural children. Permanent licenses for teachers have been discontinued (p. 130 ) and greater emphasis is being placed upon in-service preparation. The Department of Education is becoming more aware of the necessity of improved supervision(p. 1 ^ 2 ). "One of the most effective means of securing the steady 1. 2. 3. Programme of Studies, pp. lhi-iii-2. ibid. p. 35 . Annual Report of S c h o o l s , 1939. p. S. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. progress of pupils through the schools is by creative supervision for teachers." 1 In all the Canadian provinces, except Quebec, the chief educational authority forms an integral part of the government; in Nev.’ Brunswick the Executive Council, with the addition of the Chief Superintendent, the Director of Education Services, and the President of the University of New Brunswick, makes up the Beard of Education. It is not at all surprising that politics play an important role under such an arangement. "Educational policy is a political product; important ap pointees, such as district inspectors who should be purely educational, are often semi-political officials and edu cational documents cannot escape more or less of the flavor of political orientation." ~ This statement, together with the fact that Hew Brunswick is listed by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics 3 (see Apoen&ix p. XII Table 7) having the greatest percentage (6.91) of il literacy of any of the provinces of Canada makes it plain that all is not well in the field of education in Me”.' Erunswick. A definite attack on illiteracy is now being launched through im proved school supervision and adult education. The new course aims to eliminate illiteracy. ^ Though the road travelled has been a long and difficult one our educational Utopia has not been reached. It is not e- nough to be content with what success thus far hau been achieved. Further effort is needed if this Province is to keep pace with the other parts of the dominion. 1. 2. 1. 4. Loc. Cit. W. Learned & K. Sills— Education in the Maritime Provinces of of Canada, p. ~U~. Annual Report of Department of Education, 1939. rc. 3. Canada Year Book, 1939. p. 102. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER XVI CONCLUSIONS First Schools.. The desire for religious dominance provided the motive for establishing the first schools. Both the Roman Catholic and the Established Church of England had hoped to persuade the natives and early settlers in Nev.’ Brunswick to accept their respective religious beliefs. Between these churches great rivalry ex isted which resulted in increased educational efforts. The first schools were founded by missionaries of the Ro man Catholic Church (pp. 12-13). These schools were located at Saint John (16^5-165^) and at Bathurst (l6:+g-l655). As early as 1700 the French had schools in Northern New Brunswick.(p. 1^). The first English school was opened at Cumberland in 177^ (p. 27) upon the recommendation of the Lieutenant-Governor. The teacher was provided by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In 1786 this society adopted a definite policy of sup porting elementary schools in the Province (p. 2S) and before IgOO fourteen schools were established. As early as 1787 schools were provided for the Indians by the New England. Company (p. 35). With the arrival of the Loya- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 lists (1753) private schools began to flourish. One was es tablished at Saint John as early as 1721! (p. 27) and one at Kingston in'1737 (p. 37). The first school to be recognized as a parish school was established by David Burpee at Maugerville in 1773 (p. W-). The first provincial grant for education was made in 1792 (p.36). During the year 1202 at least thirteen parish schools were in operation in Kings County. P.frJg. etlves,,p f_ Elementary,Education. The hope of making Canada a stronghold of the Roman Cath olic religion cs.used the Recollet Fathers to strive to estab lish in New France early in the 17th century (p. 33)' ^ this time French missionaries were active in New Brunswick and about 1760 Protestant missionaries arrived to make efforts to convert the Indians (p. 12). The sources of the French missionaries induced the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel to provide schools where the children might be taught to believe and live as Christians and to read an write (p. 22) and to fit themselves for useful em ployments (p. 120). The parish schools aimed to furnish the education necessary to qualify for public a.nd civic offices (p. 20). but the impor tance of religion was not overlooked in these schools (p. 2^). The importance of education to society was stressed (p. k-6). These schools hoped to prepare the children for entrance into the vocations (p.121). The New England Company hoped to civilize the Indians R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 and to teach them the English language, the liberal arts and sci ences, and some trade (p.3*0 . -Me schools founded by this com pany hoped to teach loyalty to British principles (p.35). The private schools taught the vocational subjects (p.27) and the fine arts (p.2 7 ). The schools of the present are stressing the perpetuation of the ideals of democracy (p. 153) anc_i- ^he elimination of il literacy (p. 15^). Educators. The educators associated with the elementary education are the French missionaries (p.13), who established the first Indian schools; L ’Abbe Bourg,an Acadian priest, who taught the Indians (p. 13); Bea.ling Stephen Williams and Matthew Brannen, soldiers, who had private schools at Fredericton late in the eighteenth century (pp. 23-2^); James Porter and the other teachers employed by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel previous to 1200 (pp. 30-31); Oliver Arnold, who established the Sussex Academy (p. 35)5 William Paine, member of the House of Assembly for Charlotte County, whose interest and efforts resulted in the introduction of the Parish School system in 1202 (p.U-2); Major General Smythe who was largely responsible for the in troduction of Madras School system (p. 5S); Marshall D'Avray and Edmund Duval who were masters of the first training schools (p. 77); George E. King, Attorney-General under whose leadership free schools were first provided (p.100); and Theodore H. Rand, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 152 who was the first Chief Superintendent of Education after the in troduction of the free school system (p.111). The Period of Growth. The expansion of the elementary school can he judged from the fact that in 1792 a grant of §100. was made to the provincial seminary (p.24-) in an effort to establish one provincially owned school and in 1939 > r‘° section of the Province was without such services. The periods of most rapid growth, judged by attendance fig ures were those which saw the introduction of the Madras system (p. 66) and the establishment of the Free Schools (pp. 114— 115). These periods coincide respectively with the period of relative prosperity which followed the War with the United States in 161214- and the period of industrial progress which came late in the nineteenth century. The importance of obtaining an education is being more and more realized by the citizens of New Brunswick (p. 150). General Conclusions. The changes which have taken place in elementary education may nave come about partly as the result of changing educational philosophies, but largely from following the example set by the other provinces of Canada and the neighboring American states. It has been noted that Nova Scotia had free schools several years (p. 110) before the system was introduced into New Brunswick. Other provinces have already established rural high schools and adopted the county as the unit of administration. During R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 recent years almost the last Canadian province to undertake the task of curriculum revision was New Brunswick. This tendency to procrastinate may he the result of politi cal domination by a Board of Education composed chiefly of the Provincial Cabinet or Executive, rather than the reluctance of educators, to depart from the established educational practices. The situation is well explained by the following statement; "Education must 'keep its place'; an aggressive no1icy of public taxation for education is thought to be out of the question for a body that desires re-election; the depart ment of education is managed by whatever proposals■a cab inet will consider harmless. In other words, there is no temptation for the educational authority to resort to an enlightened popular agitation and a direct appeal to the people, because it is not in a position to array itself against the government and force through vital legislation." Problems Needing Investigation. It is believed that the matters which need the immediate attention of educators and legislators are; (a) The reorganisation of teacher training and certification. (b) The establishment of the county as a unit of educational ad ministration with a system of rural high schools. (c) The provision of visual and auditory aids for rural schools. (d) A definite program of consolidation for rural school areas. (e) A satisfactory library service. (f) Suitable apprenticeship and compulsory attendance legislation. (g) The reduction of illiteracy. 1. Learned & Sills— Op. Cit. p. 6 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. BIBLIOGRAPHY R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. i6o BIBLIOGRAPHY. Primary Sources. Acts of the Assembly respecting Education 1793-1939. Archives, Public, Ottawa. British North America Act. Governor Garleton to Rt. Honorable W. W. Grenville, August a^.m ifOyD. Col. Cor. N.B. Vol. 2. p. 223 20,i790 Ward Chipman, letter Lord Bathurst hay 1 5 , 1323. Col. Cor. New Brunswick Vol. 27. p. 109 Calendar of Church Manuscripts. Diocese of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick Headquarters of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, London, England. Canada.— Annual Report of the Department of Indians, Ottawa, Kind's Printer 193o. 11 Year Book, Bureau of Statistics, 11 Sessional Papers. Ottawa,King*sPrinter. No. 27 , 1$22. Colony of New Brunswick— Annual Reports to Colonial Secretary, lS2g-lg66. Fenety, G. S., Political Notes and Observations. S. R. Miller, 13677 Fredericton, Fraser, non. John J., Report of the Legislative Commission upon charges relating to the Bathurst Schools. 'Printed for the Legislature, 1S91*-. Gesner, Abraham— New Brunswick, with Notes for Immigrants, London, Simonas and Ward, 18^7. Kngerman, K. H., Oral Report concerning Madras Schools. Haher vs. Town Council of the Town of Portland, argument before the Privy Council of Great Britain, 1374. New Brunswick, Journals of the Assembly, 1793-lS^p. Minutes of the Board of Education, IS52-I939. manual 0f the School Law and Regulations of the Boa^d of Education. IS7O-I929. ~ Revised Statutes, 1927. Minutes of the House of Assembly, 1S20-1939. Minutes of the General Sessions ISO3 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. l6l New Brunswick, Statutes of New Brunswick, 1736-1939. Debates in the House of Assembly, 1837-32. A.nnual Report of Madras Schools, Annual Report of Parish Schools , Annual Report of Schools, 1871-1936. Annual Report of Department of Education,1937-39. Annual Report of Vocational Education Board,1939. Report of Commission on Education, 1932. Public A.ccounts of the Province 1937 ^ncl 1932. Frogram of Studies for the Schools. 1939Educational Circulars Nos. 1 to l4-. Journal of Education, 1387. Report of Society for thePropagation of the Gospel, 177^. for the Society for the Propagaiont of the G-ospel, London, England. Renaude et al.— Judgment of the Supreme Court of Mew Brunswick uoon the constitutionality of the Common Schools Act, 1371. Royal Instructions to Governor' Carleton, 178^. Secondary Sources. Cubberlev, SIwood P.— Brief History of Education, Cambridge, Riverside Press / 1922. Fisher, Peter— First History of New Brunswick, privately printed, 1325, reprinted Saint John, New Brunswick Historical Society, 1921. Hannay, James— Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley, Saint John. (no printer given) 1397* Kay, G-. U.— Article on Canade and Its Provinces. Vol. 1^ Toronto ;SdinburgVJniversity Press, for Publishers' Association of Canada, 1913* King, H. B.— School Finance in British Columbia, Victoria. Printer, 1935. Lawrence, J. Judges of New Brunswick. King's (No printer or date given). Learned, W. S. and Sills, K. C. II.— Education in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, Bulletin No. 16. New York, Carnegie Foundation for the ad vancement of Teaching, 1922. LeGreslev, Omer— L 'Enselgnement du Francais Sn Acadie. These de doctorat de L'Universite de Paris. Hamers, C-abriel Enautl, 1925. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Head 162 Lee, G. Herbert.— First Fifty Years of the Church of England In the Province of New Brunswick, Saint John, "Sun Publishing Co., 1880. Maxwell, L. B.— History of Central New Brunswick, Sackville, Tribune Press, 1937* Ontario.— Teachers' Manual, History of Education, Toronto United Press Limited, 1926. Raymond, W. 0.-— New Brunswick Schools of Olden Times, Educational Review, Saint John. Raymond, W. 0.— Winslow Papers, A. D. 1776-1226, Saint John, Sun Printing and Publishing Co., 1901. Sabine, Lorenzo.— Loyalists of the American Revolution. Little Brown & Co., 1864. Boston, Smith, T. Watson,— History of the Methodist Church, Halifax, Methodist Book Room, 1277. Stephen, A. G.— Private Schools in Canada, Toronto, Clarke Irwin & Co. Ltd., 1932. ' Thomas, L. 0.— The Province of New Brunswick, Ottawa, King's Printer, 1930. Trueman, G. J.— School Funds in the Province of Quebec, Contributions to Education. N0 .T0 6 , New York, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1920. Updegraff, Harlan.— The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. Contributions to Education. No. 1, New York, Teachers' College, New York University, 1902. Webster, J. C.— Historical Guide to New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick Government Bureau of Information and Tourist Travel, 1932. Unpublished Manuscripts. Bailey, G. W.— Our Schools 12^7-1252. Bradley, Mary .— Narrative of the Life and Christian Experience of Mrs. Mary Bradley. Gorham, R. P.— Educational Developments in Loyalist Kingston. Fisher, Peter.— Sketches of New Brunswick. Somerville, Jas.— Sermon preached in Cathedral at Fredericton. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 163 Original Letters. Original Documents. L g .g a z ift.e s . Sducational Rr.yiew« 1S92-1939? Saint John. Macmillans Magazine, Macmillan & Co., London & Cambridge. iiew Brunswick Historical Society Collections. Vol. 1-13. New Brunswick Magazine Vol. 1-5". Brunswick Historical Society. Scrapbooks. ----- Clipping from various sources, New Brunswick Museum Saint John. Newspapers printed in New Brunswick. Saint John City Gazette, 1791-1222. Saint John Courier, 1212-1235. Saint John Times,' 1809-182^. Chatham G-leaner, 1239-^-^63. Saint John Evening Globe, 1356-1869. Saint John Morning News, 185^— 1873. Saint John Daily News, 1870-I89ii-. Saint John C-lobe, I3CO-I917. Telegraph-Journal, 152 5Salnt Croix Courier, 1395- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. APPENDIX. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 O/BTP/BUT/0N OF POPUl FT/O/V p£W BFO/VStY/CK vMoncfonm Sf.flno'rer/sV (I) i.O.Tt’on/ast Y/,e c ' e 3 0// V £ = v v ' R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix Page 11 Table 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 3. 9. Percentage Paid by Provincial Governments in Canada towards the Cost of Education. Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan 12.50 4-1.30 12.07 16.60 25.01 9.30 60.09 16.50 12.50 ^Table 2 Percentage of the Cost of Fublic Education Paid by the Government in various British Countries. Per Cent. England and Wales(not including University education) 5-0 Scotland ~ " %.7 Northern Ireland 32.5 Nev; Zealand 100.6 The Australian States 100.0 South Africa 100.0 1. H.B.King— School Finance in British Columbia, - 63. 2 . Loj^Cit. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix Page 111 Table 3 PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 1 SCHOOL TAX IN MILLS MEDIAN COUNTY MEAN Restigouche 33.96 31.75 6.5 to 53.5 Gloucester ^5.5 40.23 7.5 to 116.5 Northumberland 27.29 27.1 6.5 to 51.5 RANGE Kent 31.75 29.5 9.5 to 97.5 Westmorland 21.13 21.1 4-.5 to 51.5 Albert 35.36 24-. 33 7.5 to 76.5 Saint John 20.2>3 20.16 6.5 to 4o.5 Charlotte 22.05 27.05 7.5 to 53.5 Kings 26.57 2^.3 6.5 to 66.5 Queens 30.76 22.0 11.5 to 21.5 Sunbury 31.67 24-.0 11.5 to 97.5 York 19.0 17.66 . 4-.5 to 59.5 Carleton 2^.72 21.0 2.5' to 22.5 Victoria 37.92 32.16 6.5 to 112.5 Madawaska 32.15 34-. 5 .5 to 21.5 Province of New Brunswick 22.99 25.26 .5 to 116.5 1. Report of the Commission on Education p. 25. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. IV ;>Ai6p puf-zi [ j R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Graph 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4 Appendix Page VI. _ Average Annual Salaries Received by Teachers 1 In Rural and Urban Schools by Provinces. 1926 1935 1937 Prince Edward Island Rural Schools Urban Schools 5?3 7*14 420 775 459 Nova Scotia Rural and Village Schools Urban Schools 535 227 531 1046 535 1104 423 1122 Item m New Brunswick Rurax Schools Urban Schools Quebec Roman Catholic (lay teachers) Protestant (lay teachers) 795 497 1166 463.1176 452 1144 Ontario Rural Schools Urban Schools ?37 1452 744 1502 735 1^73 1202 620 1252 612 1333 Saskatchewan Rural Schools Urban Schools 1017 1292 465 914 424 1113 Alberta Rtiral Schools Urban Schools 1034 1524 723 1369 752 1415 British Columbia Rural District Municipalities Cities 1110 1419 1642 94o 1117 1577 957 1150 1690 Manitoba Rural Schools Urban Schools # # T Not Available 1. Canada Year Book, 1939- P» 1017* R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Appendix. Page VII. Table 5 Rural and Urban Teachers’ Post-Depression Salaries Expressed as Percentages of Pre-Depression Salaries. Province Rural Urban P. c. 91.3 99.5 ' Nova Scotia 96.^ 99.1 New Brunswick 79.5 96.S Quebec 73.6 89.3 Ontario 72.3 92.8 Manitoba 63.2 82.7 Saskatchewan IP 69A Alberta 71.8 91.0 British Columbia 83.6 SS.4 1. (Protestant) CM p. c. Prince Edward Island Canada Year B ooh, 1938 p. 981 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Graph 3 VIII Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Graph 4 IX R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Graph 5 X 1 t ■tSooAs'. 'J 1 £ R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6 Appendix Page XI Cost per Capita of Education ^ in the Canadian Provinces for the Year 1930-31 (excluding universities) Province Cost British Columbia Alberta 16.56 Saskatchewan 15.39 Manitoba 16.73 Ontario 16.73 Quebec New Brunswick 7.20 Nova Scotia 8.17 Prince Edward Island 5.20 1. H. 3. King— School Finance in British Columbia, p. 70. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7 Appendix Page XII Literacy of the Population of 10 Years of Age or Over by Provinces.1 Can Read And Write Province Can Read Only Can Neither Read nor Write p. c. Prince Edward Island 96.63 0.72 2.65 Nova Scotia 95.05 O .69 ^.26 New Brunswick 92.0S 0.71 6.91 Quebec 9^.52 0.72 K i e Ontario 97. W- 0.2 6 2.30 Manitoba 95.15 0.39 M 6 Saskatchewan 95.39 0.^9 K Alberta 96.10 0.^7 3M British Columbia 95.76 0 .2s 3.96 1. 13 Canada Year Booh, 1939 > P« 1Q8. NEW YOR K U N IV E R S IT Y SC HO O L OF E D U C A TIO N o L IB R A R Y q Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
1/--страниц